To Go Over- Part 1 Flashcards
July days
Several days of ucontrollable riots on streets
Sparked by a failure of a sumemr offensive- anegr at economy, petrograd garrison feared being sent to front, many wanted to size control
Kronstadt urpsising
Pg support men and sr in fighting back
Lenin exile
Bol majority by oct rev
Trostky chair exec petrograd gov
23,000 deb to 300,000 by oct
Newspaper
10,000 red gaurds
Moscow city duma 20 sept 51% compared to 11% june
Bol majority petrograd and moscow soveits
Trotsky elected chairman of petrogrd soviets
4/7 soveit exec comm seats by bolsheviks
Lenin in finland- barrage of emssages
Why did rev occur feb 1917 econ
Sr
Economic disaster 1914-17
Causes by war efforts and increase costs associatied
Loss of workforce esp peasants
Inflation and real wages fell
Lr
Economic backwardness- industrialised late on, traditionaly emphasis on agriculture- reliabel on weather00- instability caused as econ move
First duma
Land reform- biggest failure- goremykin (pm 1914-16 and 1906) reected
Tauride palace proetested- crossed border to finland and issue vybord manifeto= many kadets arrested
Sucecess- cooperation during famine
Kadet majority,
Lots of demands- not sucessful
Amnesty political prisoners, fully democratic electoral systemes
Second duma
Less kadets, cooperate famine regime
Debates end in fights
Stolpin- sd plot asassinate tsar- dissolve
Tu banned
Fourth duma
Centre right mahoirty
Fall back to policy of repression
Ww1 met intermittently during conflict
Culture and reform orthodox church
Provide uni education
Dissolve itself back war effort
Pg achievement
Within few days- olice department abolished and repaleced - political prisoners freed
Polictical meetinsgs and e- newspaper and pamphlest
2mill petrograd- join trade unions
On front line- abolition of capital pinishment
Wartime rationing became freer
Comm legal exports appointed to produce plan for r. Service
Elections to constutient eassemblied
Areas ps conflict pg
Pg self appointed- llligetimate, wealthyl, petrograde legit vlice of people
How war should be continued
Exiled.impisoned left iwng leaders brought back to city- esp lenin increase ltension
Pg temporary
Pg postpone elections and decision making flaws
Land sucess pg no
Srs joined pg may- seemed to have betetr relationship with peasantry and pg
Chernov (sr leader)- minister of arguculture, sr abuse peaceful solution\
Not successful- land siezures increased 237 cases july, local sr encountered issues if treied to restrain peasants
Econ pg
Food shortage, unemployment and high prices, still rationing- grain crisis gov increase price by 100%
Railway system, badly damaged by war
Shortage fuel and raw materials- factoreies close down
Poor harvest 19917
Resources towards army laking
Increase strikes
Sent out punishment brigades to requsisition grain
Disint persuade pearosns to bring grain to city as few goods to buy at inflated rate
Revisionsit historians 70s 80s oct rev
More objective
Aware western propaganda- vilify ussr
Look to both sides
Smith- more action role lower ranks bol party- less organisation
Fitzpatrick- argued that workers, soldiers and peasants created conditions in which b could operate- formed soviets and comm before bol on schene
Post revisionist hisotrian view oct rev
Declassification
Eg robert service
Argue lenin key figure w/ut drive and persistance not oct rev
Hall makrs of coup present.
Maintain independant action at local levels in pg and soviet
Eg increassed radicalisation of worker, soldier, sailor and peasants
Why were bols sucessful oct 1917
Weakness of provisional gov
Nature of pg
Mistakes of kerensky
Policies
Other factors
Strengths of bolsheviks
Poliicies
Party
Luck
Other factors
Bol sucess oct 1917 weakness pg policies
Failure to understand peeasantry- legimiise peasant land takeover not given7
Oppression similar to tsarist regime
Continue involvement in war, economic policy- ineffecitve, treatment of minorities- lost support after danger self sdetermination
B sucess oct strnegth b policies
Popular to end war
Land to peasanry- nationalised
‘All powe0r to the soveist’ ‘peace land and bread’
B apporach pg and urge overthwo
Socialist policies associated with pg- opposition to them meant ssupport bolsheviks
B sucess oct 1917 strnegth b luck
Kornilov affiar- bolsheviks used as an opportunity to provide themselves
Oct rev- pg gain support
Economy worsen and war situation- anger of proletariat
Radicalised workers to favour soviet power
B sucess oct other factors strneght b
Bolsheviks-s more active supporters around petrograd and moscow
Pnly smalll majority of petrograd gained blshevik support- ajority soldiers remain revolution and reform opporition
Lenin pricniple reason why rev sucessful oct idoelogy lenin
Forefront of socialism- what is to be done 1902- broke down complext details into more undertsandable messgaes
April thesis- soveits sole power, nationalisation of land, spread sociaism internationally, remove from war
Head bolshevik party
T pricniple reason why rev sucessful oct t ideology
More in contact with [eople- leadership of petrograd soviet- 51% bol insep moscow city duma, 4/7 soveit exec comm
Hold together all factionss
Kornilov
Chose trajectory of july days, trotsky heoric, arrested more poularity
Oct concessinos made 1917
Max 8hr day
Free education all children
Social insuance- benefits
Old ge, health, unemployment
Immediate end to war- peace talks, armistice agreed nov
Perhaps to lower class
Abolish private ownership of land, legitimise peasant siecurs of land without compensation to landlorsds
Oct 1917 terro
Opp press abnned
Nov concession granted 1917
Abolish titles and class ranks
Promise self determination of poeple, of former russian empire in dec
Finland- indepenant, ukraine- elected rada
Gave women rights to sueprivese management
Mena nd women equal rights on properties
Nov terror used 1917
Abolution of old judicial system and established new legal system of elected poeoples county
Opposistion- burzkin- enermy of the people- society turn in on itself
Dec concession 1917
Nationalised banks
Demoratization of army, remove ranks, saluets, army decie who to elect officers under contrl soldiers soviets
Nationalise church
Remove marriage and divroce from ecclesiatical control
Women right to initiate divorce
Dec terror used 1917-
Cheka created
Occt dec 1917 terror used
Anyone acusied of being burzki- beaton on streast of ewell dressed
Bolshevised soldiers andsailors dfree licence to loot burzhi and acts of violence
Eg red gaurd- 50 military cadets thrown into blast furnace
State licenece and encourage dpeople to loot the looters ‘
Food shortage linked to war
Food supplies going to army
Army using trains, which would transport food
Moscow and petrograd recieving 1/3 food required in 1916
Concessions one party state
Abolition of private land ownership- socialissation of land
Blunted appeal of sr in countrydside
Workers increase rights major cituies- blunt prospect of future proett nd rev
Moscow uprpiising
Kadet
Sizeing kremlin
Aim to sieze rest of mosocw
Ended as red guards stormed kremlin- kadets surrender
Mortars and utiliary made more damage than ww2
Chapan rebellion
Peasants
3 mar 1919
Frustrated force grain requisition and conscription- village of novodevich attacked a requisitions brigade
First reds sent in to put down unrest, mutinies siding with villagers
Olans to sieze control of gov of samara and simbrban- expanding local regions
How solveed- village burning, conc camps, execution villages, 30% rebelled, 13,000 troops
Kerensky krasnov
Kerensky slipped away from winter palace after 9am- ibn american embassy car
//7oct- biplane appeared petrograd dropping copied of proclamations bby kerensky- claiming his troops had takebbn tsakoesnev
Krasnov russian tsarist general- hated kerebnsky after kornilov affair- advanced petrograd,1,000 men, put force of red gauds to fight
Trotsky called on red gaurds to made out of city to defend the rv
Krasnov calling reinforced bbut no success- offend provoke b or responsiblty civil war
Krasnov
Poor leadership and weakness
abbandoned red gaurd attack
Civil wwar events 1917
Oct and feb rev
B sieze power
Press censorship
Land siezure
Class wafare- bourgoise
Banning of liberlas
Establishment of cheka
Civil war events 1918
Brest litovskc
Trotsky cotrol armed forces
Action s-e
Foriegn intevention
Romanoves
Red terror
Kolchak in command
T control armed forces
1918
Reorganise red amr from red gaurd
Reemploy 750,,000 imperial officers and 775 generals
Strict discpline rintroduced and salute and death penalty
Foirgein intervention civil wr 1918
Northern and eastern rusia
Gbb land archangel
Estabblish anti-b gov
French land odessa
1919 civil war events
Attack from kolchak
Yudenich assult-west
Attack from denekin
Armistic between estoniaand russia signed
Attack kolchak
1919
Crossed urals mountains- east
End apr- reds begin counter foffensive driving him back eastwards
Yudenich assault
1919
West
Adavnced against petrograd- close in north
Forced back red army oct
Attack denskin
Southern volunteer army move northwards out fo crimea
Decided to push close to moscow- siezed kharnov and tsaristky
Trotsjy offer to resign- refused
Denekin annex orel, forced back later in oct
Trotsky sucessful in mission- enough red army to send denekin south towards crimea- which later get
Peace treaties 1920
Russia and estonia
Latvia, lithuania, finland- recognised as independant states
Russo polish war
1920
Apr0 poland invaded ukraine, aim to liberate ukraine and secure ukranian regions through eastrn galacian b
Poles capture kieve by red regime
Pushed back to warsaw
Peace negotiations
Decree on peace
8 nov- lenin order general dukhonin to contact german mil authority to enter peace negotiations and cease hostility
20 nov0 kronstadt body mutilateed of dukhonin- didnt recognise sovnarkom as central gob, russian soldiers abbandon front line to siexe land
2 dec0 armistace agreed
Bb disrtibute rev pamphlets to german troops around no mans land at treaty b-l
Trotsky arrive- took over negotiations at l- bbought more time through philisophical discussions to allow european rev to take place
Split of party 8 jan
15 jan- argue beter deal
Terror during civil war
Middle class enemy
Sell jewelry and clothes for bread
1920s study showed that 42% prostitutes from bougeois
Red terror- after lenin shot
Large sr arrests
Men and sr excluded from soveits
Increase executions -1908-20 increased 13,000, real stat closer to 300,000
Cheka increase class warfare
Labbour and conc camps- for dissenting troublesome workers, peasants
1913-1921- pop russia decreased by 120 mill
Palaces and town houses of rich taken over and living space divided up amongst proletariat
Urban areas during civil war
Feb 1918- bread rationing in petrograd v low- 50g/day
Cibvil war sausage- horse meat
Worker start to flee from city, factory staff needed for munitions- barter for foot
Less than 1/3 urbban diet from state provisioned rations
Black market- bag men travel around selling produce, swap handmade goods for food
Choas in factory- lack of control- decrees on workers
Increase opp from workers, anarchists, lefts,
Woerker- economy, low food rations, state violence- new soviet elections, free press, ca
Anarchists0 reject authoritarian control of gov
Left wing groups against
Treaty bl
Wanted wart o restart to get beter position
Captured dzerzinsky head of cheka
Shot lenin
Corruption durng civil war
Many areas run bbby local mafias of bol officers- lived well as others ufered and starved
5,000 b and their families lived in kremlin and hotels in moscow with french trained chefs
Critics procliamed from corrupt b officers and wives of mistrises went around with ‘jewelry shop window hanging round their necks
Brutality during civil war
Cossaks in south raped and murdered villages of jews in pogroms- 115,000 deaths in ukraine alone, claimed jews supported bby b
Whites shot miners who didnt produce enough coal- donbass region - rostov- hundred red miners burned alibve
Kharnov- reds nailed epaullettes of officersc to their shoulders while still alibve
Increased opposition- calling new soviet elections, free press and rstoration of ca
Rural life civil war
Value of rouble collapsed= shortage of goods led to soaring price inflation, refuse to hand over grain
335 agricultural land not used
Rich wheat areas of ukraene fell outside b control
Grain requisition wit help cheka to fill quotas even if peasants refuse- retailiation peasants murder b officials
Leniinn tied to ignite class wafare agianst peasants- no ffewer than a hundred well known kadests’ ‘take place in full view of the pepole’, peasants didnt and retailated- stop planting next sseason
Peasant resentment civil war
By 1921- no possibility of decisive white victory
Grain requisition cause resentment- 118 seperate uprising in 1921
Tambov region- 70,000 strong rebevellion-tough for red army until posien cas in 1922
Great famine civil war
1921 great famine in russia
Samora rainfall from 33 mm to 0.3mm in 1921
Illegal trade human flesh beigin as forging increase
Death tol as highe as 8mill
War comm and grain requisition encourage discontent
Urban strikes civil war
Food ration fall to 1thrd 1921- t50g.day
Food demonstrations- cheka broke as ordinary soldiers reduse to fight against
Dislike militarisation of catories- worker imprisoned or shot if targets not met
State hijacked ty and took political control- calls for ‘soviet without communists’
Martial law imposed in moscow and petrograd
Kronstadt uprping
Hotbed for anarchiist radicalisation
Crews of petropaulosh and seeratopol had emergency meeting and investigated
Support empire, 30,000 soldier military in hope of 3rd rev- no central comm, autonomous, sovnarkom over gov
60,000 ra troop deal with dissents
Red try to sieze fortified island- tukachevsky leader under ra control
Ringleader round up and shot, 15,00 sailors sent to l=first big labour camp on white sea
Claim not part of sfighters in 1917 rev- killed civil war- not some forout in rev- however argued kronstadt always had large no fo sr and anarchsist and less b
How important were unity and organisation to red victory in civil war - organisation yes
Trostky control red guard 1918- reemploy 750,000 officers and 775 generals from iperal army with experience and discipline, discipline esp important (reintroduce salute, death penalty, reusede democratisation
Military strnegyh prove imporantant- counteroffensive against kolchak eastward denekin sva pushed back and crimea siezed- when denekin replaced with wrangel lacked strongl leader
How important were unity and organisation to red victory in civil war - organisation no
Reverse democratisation unpop- mutiny kronstadt uprisning against increasingly dictatorial regimes eg 2 freedom of speech
However arguably white only shorter term sucess- jolchack omsk gov firmeer military dctatorships, officer remove by coup
Peasants 118 uprising 1918 feb, not good control whole country
Mass consciptionds
Introduced june
Factory workers and party activists first o be called up
40,000/275,000 peasants recuirts expeted actually appeared- peasants didnt want to leave villlages at harevst time
Size of red army grew
1 mill men 1919 spring, 3 mill 1920, 5 mill end of civil war
State ccapitalism
Mixed economy, halfway house bwteen private wealth and socialism
Major companies and industry remain in private hands but under state control
Factories and manufacturing managed by vesenkha
Worers comm replaced by managers in factories and heavy infustries- production over to proletariat
Rurlal lands not fully nationalised, granted to the peasants who farmed them
Nationalisation of banks and railways
Sucess of econ policy- state capitalism
Steadily managed transistion towards socialism0- lenin insist gradual
Decree on land (oct 1917) ensure peasants had incentive to prdocue grain
Decree on workers control- ‘responsbility of the state for.. teh protection of property’
Infrastructure allowed for greater state control
Vesenkha estabisshed to regualte economic life
Failures state ccapitalism
Limited resources- famine
Opposition
Czech legion 1918
Junker mutinu
Workers committess- poor control- increaseo wn wages, no regulation, black market,
B outraged with comprpomise with old capitalist system
War comm
1918-21
Reversing many of concessions madde bfoe
Remilitarise intensity of soldiers- more iscipliene
Control over wokrers- managers- sueprvisers, internal passports
Increase intensity of cheka- fear installed, martial alw
Overall aim using civil war for b
Coal, iron, steel nationalised
Increase grain requisitions
Private trade banned
Sucess war comm
Helped to decreasep eople leaving urban areas
Increase control of factories
Class warfare- rations based on indivdual in society and their contribution
Urban workers and red army- most
Bonuses reintrodiced as icentive
Won teh b the civil war
Urban areas fed
Currency collapsed, dependanty upon work- rations repaced work
Gave excise to take power- link wit hwar
Some welcome this cange-f actories stay open
War comm falures
Grain requisition- removed incentive for peasants to work- kulaks persecuted
Tambo rgion 1920s ungovernmeable- 118 peasant uprising in feb 192 1alone
Value rouble collapsed
Black market developed- bag men
Cheka raisded trains
Liimted goods to ration
Infaltion rampant
Output fall 20% of pre war levels by 1921- seere shortage raw materials
Kronstadt sailors ipposed despite origional supporters
Blockadeo f trade and less ukraisne worsen sitution
Coal production fall by 20 mill tonne 1914-1920
Nep key features
1921-24
Grain requisition abolished- replaced by tax in kind- pepasants have to give over proportion of grain to state (Sell aborad))- less than what taken in requisistion- could sell surplus on open market- partial capitalism
Ban on private rtade removed- food and goods flow more easily from countryside and towns- privatley owned shops nreintroduced
Money economy back and increase rouble valyue
Small business repone- under pirvate ownership allowd to make profit
Inc small workshops and factories made goods such as shoes nails clothes
Lenin relaised peasants wouldnt produce grain unless goods they wanted on sale
State control of heavy infustry
Coal steel oil
Retain control of transport and bnking susetm
Industry organised intro trusts that had to buy mateerials and pay their workers with own budget
If failed to manage their budget fficiently could not expect state to bail them out
Sucess nep econ and increased prosperity
Private business repoen and profit incentive reintroidcued
Production all ssections of economy increased- some not far off pre 1913 levels
Grain harvest 76.8mill 1926 comp to 80mill 1913 tonnes
Coal 27.4 miill 1920 comp 1913 29 mill
Impressive considering b-l
Workers paid real wages 1927
Rural famileis better fed, standard of living increase, klak emerged
Advanceed methods used in farming
Crop rotation on 20%-, chemical fertiliser
Electrical output almost doubeld - supplied to many villlages and hospitals
Gosplan- state general planning comm- established- manage nep with vzenksha
Increase international trade and production- grain sold
Sucess nep- sense of stability
Banning of grain requisition peleased rural comm
Decreased armed rebellion against state
Urban workers provided wiuth suppiles and wokr
Party unified as loywalty nep provided= 10th conference- ban on factions 1921
New soviet bank established oct 1921
- balanced the budget
Reformed currency- reoubles curency by 1924
New labour code- 8hr day, 2s annual leave, increased pay for increased producation
Failure of nep
Famine continued until 1922- nep not show immediatley
Railway in por condition- hf broken down- gov sought to increase by spending evious foreign currency on them
By 1926-27- surpass 1913 levels
Heavy industry took longer to recover
Unemployed 16% 1923, same as iin 1927
Scissor crisis- trsotsky- agricultural prices falll as industrical prices increase0 eventually peasants stopped releasing grain quota as had enought to live and maek profit on- eventualy stopped buying manufactured goodsf
Urban worker stilll dependant on private agriculture- rations not enough
Temporary emasures- free entreprise- disised by many in party as morally worng- not scialist- lead to ban on factions
Did liberalism of teh econ lead to political liebrsalsim- political rivarly
Pressureo n sr and rivals intensified
Bol arrest 5,000 men 1921- c-r activity
Comm round up accused sr and held show trials - seemingly democratic, biased trial
34 leaders condemned as terrorist, 11 execueted
Mens ans srs out of parliament
Did liberalism of the econ lead to politcial liberalism- press freedoms
By 1922- doxens of writers and scholars deported
Efforts made to consume intelligensia that cric gov
Pre-publication censorhsip in gaulit- admin for affairs of lit and publishing
Did liberalsm of teh econ lead to political liberalism- secret police
Cheka renamed gpu 1922
Secret police grew in importance during nep
Arbitrary imprisonment an death penalty after 1920
How did civil war lead to less democratic system
Discussion and debate
Party structure
Ends justify means
Membership
How did civil war lead to less dmeocraticc systems-changes to support base
Party lost support base in proletariat workforce
Early suporters-urban workers and soldiers had faught, some ied, some join party bureacracy
1919- 39% party memebrs in army- other work in offices not factories
Party start to focus to consolidate positions of members
Had comm party centralised power 1917-21
Collapse of industry
Lack peasant cooperation
Struggle to win ciil war
Political repression
Consolidation of power- pragmatism and survival
Nep from war comm- appease, recoevr economy through private industry
Exit from wwi- treaty bl
Early supporters- urban worker and solder, had faught some died, some party beuracracy
Iplemntation of war comm during ww1- grain requisition, keep soldier fed
Nationalisation ‘communist’ economy in bans, heavy industry, railways
‘Releasing’ national minority from empire- reduce no oppositions
Incentives- salt to peasants- attract support
Decree on land, workers, peace- sovnarkom
Politicisation of soveits=
Strength of lenin and com party by apr 1921
Found solution to crisis faced
Kronsstadt uprising, tambov- gas, kill kolchak, overrule denkin and yudenich
Romanov killed
Lack legit precedents- opp remoeved, ca dissolved, not roanovs
White and green black defeated
Leadership clear in army- trostky
Control of raiways and key indstries- ammunitions factories, steel , coal , iron
International situation ‘stark’
Strnegth lein and comm party by apr 1921 weakness
Discontent- war comm not stopped when war over
Econ problems faced food shortages- rouble lost 96% value
B-l harsh- lost valuable agriculture ukraine- humiliation
Atrocity of kronstadt- dictatorship exposed, lost support from og
Unity withiin party threaten- workers oppp
Failure of permenant rev- eg spartacists
Trimming of empire
Famine- required us relief
Why was stalins sucessful in leadership bid- politcial skills and ruthlessness
Use of ban on factions- remove united opp
Correct allies at right time 1924-25- backing zionoviev and kamenev against trostky before turning against them too
Utalised lenin funeral to his adv
Able to identify own policy with thosse of lenin- making critticism of policies diff- eg nep, expansion of party
Remain in background when apporopriate to allow others to fight duels- literary wars z+k v trosky- 19925-26
Able to shift ideological standpoint- adap suit policu= ;eft and right too staunch in their ideas- eg great turn 1928- rapid industrialisation and grain requisition- turn from nep as no longer working- scissor crisis- but support as in urals- involved
Needed to enforce socialism in one country
Played left and right off each other
Mistakes rivals-stalin sucess
Q made over trotsky leadership style and capacbility- never commanded majoirty support, arrogant, good orato but disliked
Tortsky author of own downfall in never making clear bid for leadership- as were k and z in breaching. Party disciline- ban on factions
Trotsky leadership style
Declaration 13th- permentat rev 1924 opp stalin socialism in one country
Bad for factory workers- but contradicts previously his support for war comm with discipline in army and factory mworkers
Trotsky stay quiet when last testament- could utalise lenins last words as truth
Chancee and opportunism why stalin sucess
Lenin last testament- never made public knowledge- read out once and only once in congress and lower down- no notes to be made
Death and pro stalin replacements:
Sverdlov- 1919- chairman of central comm- replace kadinin
Sverdlov thought as lenin sucessor
Lenin 1924
Dzerinsky 1926 as head of cheka replaced by menzhinsky
Aspects to which stalin gained control of
Red army- trotsky
Secret police- dzerzinsky dead
Cominterm- tomsky )or rykov)
Propaganda- bukharin
United opp how stalin manipulate
Trosky- permnant rev- traitor by not focusing own counrty
Trosky incencire for concern industrial workers- strict party disciplien in factory
Accuse united opp of factionalism- expelled all from party- k+z later let back in but trosly exiled to kazakstan and later istanbul
Left opp
Zionoviev and kamenev opp bukharin and stalin
Policy is at expense of industrial workers
Kamenev spech- called for vote of no cnofidence in stalin
559-64(no)- due to stalin support
Stalins actions right opposite
Remove bukharin supporters from party
Nov 1929 stalin speech against bukharin
Accuse- right deviation- not marxist enough
Removed from partyl
3 recounted and let back in but no power or impact left
Historians argue t weakness
Deutscher, - too arrogant understimate stalins
barmine carr- too arrogant so lack of support and coop with others
Historian politicla skill- stalin sucess
Conquest- skill at removing opponents- alliance witho ne group against another before turning on them
Bukharin at secret meeting with kamenev- stalin ruthless ‘genghis khan’ ‘chanegs his theors according to who he needs to get rid of next’
Historians policies stalin sucess
Ward-] economic poluicy under ‘left turn’ icnreased mass support, previous critics of nep
Deutscher- politburo- stalin moved with popular opinoion ‘always agreeable to the majority’
Luck historian
Mccauley- ‘stalin had luck on his side’-lenin death allowed for his rise]
Economic problems ww1
1916 inflation reached 200%
Value of rouble fallen substantially
Million peasant farmers conscripted into army
Discontent peasants ww1
Many of those conscription into the army had come from the Russian peasantry. By 1916 a third had been injured.
As the Russian Army had retreated from Poland and Lithuania in 1915, they had employed a ‘scorched earth’ policy, destroying a great deal of farmland. Peasant livelihoods were obliterated.
Shortages in grain during the war resulted in many of the poorer land workers hoarding what they produced.
Trigger of feb rev
Announcement of bread rationing
Factories seeing striking
Putilov engineering factor
