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Premade Weekly Decks > Stats T5 - T10 > Flashcards

Stats T5 - T10 Flashcards

1
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A number also represented by “r” describes positive (r=1), negative (r=-1) or no correlation (0=r)

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2
Q

What needs to be taken into consideration for construct validity

A

based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure and grows gradually as each new study contributes more evidence.

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3
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.

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4
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record
measurements of the behaviours

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5
Q

Split-half reliability

A

obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a
separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a
group of participants.

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6
Q

What are the two types of measures of reliability

A

Successive and simultaneous measurements

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7
Q

What are a few physiological measures commonly used

A

monitoring
heart rate or blood pressure, measuring
galvanic skin response, imaging
techniques positron emission tomography
(PET) scanning magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) electroencephalogram (EEG) magnetoencephalography (MEG).

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8
Q

What are two prerequisites of behavioural observations

A

behaviour is not disturbed observations are based in subjective judgments and intepretations which pose a threat to reliability so need for more than one observer

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9
Q

Archival research

A

involves looking at pre-existing records (archives) to measure behaviours or events
that occurred in the past

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10
Q

Content analysis

A

measuring the occurrence of specific events, actions or statements in written
text (e.g., literature, press reports, transcripts) or film/video recordings (e.g., movies, television programmes) or similar media

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11
Q

How is the issue of interpretation in observational designs addressed (3)

A

well-defined categories of behaviour well-trained observers multiple observers or coders to assess inter-rater reliability

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12
Q

What are behaviour categories

A

well/defined sets of behaviour that is to be observed which helps isolating relevant behaviours

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13
Q

How are observations quantified (3)

A

frequency: how many times does something occur in the given time-frame duration: for how long does a behaviour occur interval: does a behaviour occur in a given interval

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14
Q

When are the three quantification methods most appropriate

A

first two techniques are often well suited for specific behaviours but can lead to distorted
measurements in some situations. For example, a bird that sings continuously for the entire 30-minute
observation period would get a frequency score of only 1. Another bird that sings 25 times with
each song lasting two seconds would get a duration score of only 50 seconds. In such situations, the interval method provides a way to balance frequency and duration to obtain a more representative
measurement

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15
Q

How do observers overcome issues of complex situations that cannot be watched multiple times

A

creating a recorded sample or taking a general sample

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16
Q

How is a sample taken

A

first step in the
process of sampling observations is to divide the observation period into a series of time intervals.

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17
Q

What are the three forms of sampling

A

Time sampling: sequence of observe–record–observe–record is continued through the
series of intervals Event sampling: identifying one specific event or behaviour to be observed and recorded
during the first interval, then shifting attention to a different event or behaviour during the second
interval, and so on, for the full series of intervals. individual sampling: identifying one participant to be observed during the first interval,
then shifting attention to a different individual for the second interval, and so on

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18
Q

How is reliability and objectivity of observations made from content analysis archival research ensured?

A

behavioural categories and preparing a list of specific examples to define exactly
which events are included in each category being measured quantification methods for each behavioural category multiple observers and coders

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19
Q

What does reliability often refer to

A

the relationship between two measures as shown by its correlation

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20
Q

When is assessing split/half reliability common

A

single variable measured within a test containing multiple items so that the internal consistency can be evaluated

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21
Q

What is the issue of split-half reliability

A

scores obtained are only from half of the test items which is less reliable because it underestimates the true reliability of the full test

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22
Q

What is the Spearman-Brown formula, and what does it do?

A

adjusts the correlation between the halves of split-half reliability tests, the effect is to increase the size of the correlation to produce a better estimate for the full test

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23
Q

What problem of split-half reliability does the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 solve

A

The idea that tests can be split in different ways which potentially skews the results

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24
Q

What is the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20

A

a formula to estimate the average of all possible split-half correlations obtainable but limited to tests with dichotomic answers

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25
Q

What do all of the components of the K-R20 mean

A

n / number of items SD p / the proportion of the participants whose response is coded 0 q / proportion of the participants whose response is coded 1

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26
Q

How is the K-R20 limited

A

It can only be used for test that have dichotonomical answer systems and Cronbach’s alpha is a modification to this

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27
Q

What are the components of cronbach’s alpha

A

the extension is that it includes the sum of the variance produces values between 0 and 1.00

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28
Q

What is Cohen’s Kappa formula, and what is it used for?

A

calculating inter-rater reliability not using a simplistic formula and relying on data prone to circumstances and chance

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29
Q

What do the elements of Cohen’s kappa mean

A

PA: observed per cent agreement PC; per cent agreement expected from chance

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30
Q

When is Cronbach’s alpha used?

A

when we have a scale that combine responses from several rating-scale items.

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31
Q

What’s the scientific method

A

Way of acquiring knowledge that includes the genesis of a hypothesis and then its systematic investigation

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32
Q

What are the three principles of the scientific method

A

Empirical: systematic/structured observation (with attempts to isolate the relationship between variables) Public: Data available for evaluation/verification to be replicated Objective: low bias

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33
Q

What are the steps of the research process?

A

Research Idea (Field Review) Hypothesis Defining Variables & Measure Participant Selection (Criteria, Ethics) Research Strategy (Design/Ethics) Research Design Selection Evaluate Data & Report Results Refine research idea

34
Q

What are the seven reasons research ethics must be considered at every stage of the process?

A

Dictate measuremets Participant selection Research stategies x population Research design x behavior/populus How the study is conducted Data analysis Reporting results

35
Q

What are research ethics?

A

Principles that concerns the responsibilty of researchers to be honest and respectful towards participants

36
Q

What are the 5 research strategies?

A

Descriptive (examining individual variables) Correlational (two variables for each individual) → numerical Experimental (cause-effect) Quasi-experimental (less control, assignment) Non-experimental

37
Q

What is a research strategy

A

General approach to the research shaped by the research question (what do I want)

38
Q

What is meant by the research design

A

General framework to implement research strategy (how do i achieve what I want)

39
Q

What are the three pillars of research design?

A

Group vs. individual Same individuals vs. different Number of included variables

40
Q

How can a study’s aspects threaten external validity? (4)

A

General q: how can the results obtained with this procedure be replicated to other procedures? Multiple treatment interference (fatigue/practise) Novelty effect (anxiety/excitement) Experimenters’ influence

41
Q

How can participants/ subjects threaten external validity?

A

volunteer/selection bias/ uni students WEIRD characteristics Cross-species comparison

42
Q

How can the measurements threaten external validity?

A

Assessment sensitisation (awareness) Pre-test sensitisation Results of an operationalised concept can be moderated by the measure → generality across measures Time of measurement

43
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Continuity that the observed results can account for the propose cause-effect relationship

44
Q

How can environmental variables threaten internal validity?

A

The room size, the colour of the walls, time of the day, the gender of the experiementer NO SYSTEMATIC DIFFERENCES IN THE ENVIRONMENTS

45
Q

How can individual differences threaten internal validity?

A

IQ, age, gender, health conditions WEIRD vs non WEIRD

46
Q

How can time-related variables threaten internal validity?

A

Individual differences that accumulate over time Comparing scores and time influences

47
Q

What is the biggest threat to internal validity?

A

The effect of extraneous variables that confound the results

48
Q

What are artefacts?

A

External factors can become a confounding variable and distort both internal and external validity

49
Q

Which artefacts concern the participants?

A

Demand characteristics: participants react to cues that reveal the purpose/ hypothesis Reactivity: induce behaviour (subject roles)

50
Q

What do participant-related artefacts primarily threaten?

A

Internal validity: reactivity explains phenomena; not generalisable

51
Q

What are non-participant-related artefacts?

A

Experimenter bias (single-blind; double-blind) Exaggerated variables

52
Q

Why is a normal distribution the most important distribution ?

A

We assume normal distribution, we can use most statistical techniques Most dependent variables are thought to be normally distribution We can make inferences If we draw a theoretical representation of all possible sample means the sampling distribution would also be normally distributed

53
Q

What is the mean and the standard deviation of t-scores?

A

Mean = 50 SD= 100

54
Q

What are the logical steps of hypothesis testing?

A

Set up a research Hypothesis H1 Set up a null hypothesis H0 Get a sample and sample distribution of sample statistics (eg mean) und the H0 Calculate probability value of of sample statistic at least as large as the one obtained Reject or Fail to Reject H0

55
Q

What’s the philosophical hypothesis of the null hypothesis?

A

M1-m2 =0 has been proposed by Fisher With the logic that we can always show that something is false

56
Q

What is the difference between sample and test statistics?

A

Stats describing samples vs. statistical results of specific proceedures with their individual sampling distributions

57
Q

What is the formula for Cohen’s d effect size?

A

d = (M1 – M2) / Spooled

58
Q

What do d= 1 and d= .5 indicate?

A

That the effect the difference is either twice or half as large as the standard deviation

59
Q

How do I interepret the effect size using cohen’s d?

A

.2 is small because the mean difference is around .2 standard deviation → .5 (medium), → .8 (large)

60
Q

What is the defining difference between in-between subjects and within-subjects design?

A

Create equivalent groups and compare them in different trearment conditions vs. use the same group of participants compared in all different trials

61
Q

How can the trials be administered?

A

Subsequentially or intermixed

62
Q

What’s instrumentation?

A

Changes in the measurement or measuring instruments (observations are heavily dependent on the observing researcher)

63
Q

What is a research strategy?

A

A method of data collection

64
Q

What is a non-experimental and quasi-experimental research strategy?

A

No manipulation and controlling for extraneous variables vs. limitation of confounding variables without controlling the environment

65
Q

What aspects threaten internal validity?

A

Time order effects the fact that counterbalancing cannot be applied

66
Q

operational definition

A

defining a variable in terms of the set of steps or procedures that the researcher goes through in order to manipulate or measure the variable

67
Q

how much is removed in the 5% trimmed mean’

A

10% in total 5 from the top and the bottom

68
Q

Confidence

A

accuracy across 100 treatments that we’ve found the likely range limits

69
Q

Type I error

A

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70
Q

Type II error

A

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71
Q

What are two ways to visually represent to measurement data variables?

A
  1. scatter plots 2. contingency tables/crosstabulation
72
Q

What is a way to visually represent a mix of categorical and measurement data?

A

compound histogram

73
Q

What is a way to visually represent categorical data pairs?

A

crosstabulation

74
Q

How should the strength of a correlation be interpreted?

A
  • Perfect:(-) 1/1 * Strong:(-) 09-07 * Moderate:(-).6-.4 * Weak: (-). 3-.1 * None:0
75
Q

What do frequency distributions for a categorical variable not include?

A

cumulative percentages

76
Q

When you collect data from a sample, the sample variance is used to ?

A

make estimates or inferences about the population variance and comparing the variance of samples helps you assess group differences

77
Q

How is the sample mean related to variance and standard deviation?

A

it is expanded on in the formulas for variance and standard deviation

78
Q

Which five steps need to be taken to calculate the sample variance?

A
  1. The mean (∑ 𝑋 /N) 2. The Deviation from the mean X- (∑ 𝑋 /N) 3. Squared deviation from the mean (X- (∑ 𝑋 /N))^2 4. Find the sum for all scores and devide by N-1 5. Take the root to find the standard deviation or z-score
79
Q

The p-value can be defined as

A

the probability of obtaining a significant result when the null hypothesis is true

80
Q

What are the five characteristics of normal distributions?

A

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