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Premade Weekly Decks > BIO T1 > Flashcards

BIO T1 Flashcards

1
Q

Which six methods can be used to record brain activity while a behaviour is occuing?

A
  1. record from electrodes in the brain
  2. electroencephalograph (EEG)
  3. evoked potentials
  4. magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
  5. positron emission tomography (PET)
  6. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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2
Q

Which two methods can be used to correlate brain anatomy with behaviour?

A
  1. computerised axial tomography (CAT)2. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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3
Q

Records changes in brain activity from the scalp by miliseconds with poor location signal resolution

A

EEG

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4
Q

Records magnetic fields in brain activity from the scalp by miliseconds with poor location signal resolution

A

MEG

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5
Q

Uses radiation to measure brain activity changes over time and location

A

PET

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6
Q

Invasive way of stimulating a brain area, rarely used with humans but frequently with lab animals

A

stimulating electrodes

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7
Q

Records changes in brain activity from the scalp by miliseconds with poor location signal resolution in response to a stimuli

A

evoked potentials

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8
Q

Measures changes in brain activity over around 1 second and identifies locatin within 1 to 2mm

A

fMRI

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9
Q

Uses radiation to map brain areas

A

CAT
| uses X-rays

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10
Q

Maps brain areas in detail using magnetic fields

A

MRI

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11
Q

Invasive way of recording brain activity, rarely used with humans but frequently with lab animals

A

record from electrodesin the brain

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12
Q

Way of examining stimulating effects in any particular type of cell frequently with lab animals

A

optogenetic stimulation

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13
Q

inflicting controlled damage

A

lesion

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14
Q

removing a brain area

A

ablation

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15
Q

intense application of magnetic stimulation to temporarily deactivate a brain area

A

transcranial magnetic stimulation

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16
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system do

A
  • prepare the organs for a burst of vigorous activity by creating a sympathetic system using the ganglia
  • Prepare the organs for flight, fight or freeze
  • axons release norepinephrine mostly and acetylcholine in minority
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17
Q

How does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body and its organs for activity?

A

increasing breathing and heart rate and decreasing digestive activity

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18
Q

What activities does the parasympathetic nervous system promote and inhibit, for example?

A
  • increases digestive activity and promotes sexual arousal, including erection in males
  • decreases heart rate
  • conserves energy
  • flow of sinus fluids is a parasympathetic response that releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine onto the organs
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19
Q

How are the cell body clusters in the parasympathetic system organised?

A
  • Not in interactive chains but long preganglionic axons
  • extend from the spinal cord to parasympathetic ganglia close to each internal organ and short postganglionic fibres extending from the parasympathetic ganglia into the organs themselves
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20
Q

What does the hindbrain consist of and where is it located?

A

The posterior part of the brain consists of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

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21
Q

What is the brainstem made of

A

the medulla and pons, the midbrain, and certain central structures of the forebrain constitute the brainstem (see Figure 3.8).

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22
Q

Where do cranial nerves originate from and what do they control

A

in the medullavital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing.

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23
Q

What is the cerebellum known for in terms what it controls

A

many older textbooks describe the cerebellum as important for “balance and coordination” → control of movement
* Types of learning and conditioning, auditory and visual stimuli
* if damaged:trouble shifting their attention back and forth between auditory and visual stimuli

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24
Q

What is the midbrain made of?

A

tectum –> tengmentum (intermediate level of midbrain) –> superior colliculus (visual processing)/ inferior colliculus (auditory processing), substantia nigra (dopamine pathways (movement))

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25
Q

What is the Forebrain and what structure does it include

A

Thalamus, hypothalamus and pituitary gland (next to which we can find the amygdala), basal ganglia

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26
Q

What is the difference between diencephalon and telencephalon

A

thalamus and hypothalamus form the diencephalon, a section distinct from the telencephalon

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27
Q

What is the limbic system

A

interlinked structure under the cerebral cortex forming a border around the brain stem

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28
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus

A

controlling eating, drinking, temperature control, and reproductive behaviours.

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29
Q

Amygdala

A

evaluating emotional (fear) information

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30
Q

Thalamus

A

sensory processing not olfactory direct to the cortex

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31
Q

What are the three germinal layers?*

A
  1. subsections of the ectoderm
    *Surface ecto: nails, hair, skin
    * Neural ecto: neural tube, crest
  2. endoderm –>mucosa of gastro/respiratory system and abdominal organs
  3. mesoderm –>
    * Paraxial: skeleton/muscles;
    * Intermediate: urogenital, kidneys; Lateral plate: limb skeleton, muscular wall
32
Q

What are the developmental steps of the genesis of the PNS in the first 8 weeks?

A

← form glioblasts (support cells/ Schwann cells), neurons, ependymal cells ← differentiate ventricular layer of spinal chord ← pia mater ← neuroepithelial cells

33
Q

What are the developmental steps of the genesis of the spinal chord in the first 8 weeks?

A
  • Spinal Chord: neural plate
  • Dorsal root ganglia: ← neural crest cells ← neural ectoderm→ central canal: ventricular layer→
  • grey matter: neuronal bodies ← mantle layer of the neural plate→
  • white matter: axons ← marginal layer*
34
Q

What is the abreviated neuroembryogenic development?

A

Zygote (linear)/ germ disc (trilaminar meso-ecto-endo) → epiblast cells replace hypoblast → proliferate to form mesoderm → 2nd onwards there is superior lining on the thicked region of the ectoderm notochord due to gastrulation → grows in the direction of the tail (caudal) and induces the notochord formation → ectoderm invaginates (ventral sucilus) → neurolation (folding of the neural plate via notochord induction)

35
Q

What two categories can cells be placed into

A
  • eukaryotic:membrane-enclosed DNA inside the nucleus ; membrane-bound organelles of varying shapes and sizes
  • prokaryotic: nomembrane-bound DNA and no other membrane-bound organelles
36
Q

What is optogenetics and why is it used?

A

Research field in which particular cells are stimulated through light
* Psychiatric and medical disorders (narcolepsy) because controlling excitatory and inhibitory functions can be seen/measured

37
Q

What is an EEG mainly used for?

A

distinguish between wakefulness and sleep stages, if measured repeatedly also for epilepsy; evoked potentials/responses in children that cannot

38
Q

What’s the benefit of a MEG?

A

Shows temporal changes accurately in 1ms; can identify the amount of time an area responds which forms a wave from point of origin to processing areas

39
Q

What is a PET device called and how does it measure activity?

A

Cyclotron
* radioactive glucose (a sugar) is injected into a vein
→ PET measures where glucose is used as an indicator of brain activity
→ radioactive atom enhancement decays and releases positron
→ positron collides with neighbouring neurons by sending two gamma rays in the opposite direction
→ PET measures how much radioactive chemicals are in one area from the middle of the two gamma rays

40
Q

Why are PETs being replaced with fMRIs?

A

expensive , inaccessible and potentially dangerous

41
Q

What is the difference between fMRI and MRI?

A

MRI records energy released by water molecules after removal of a magnetic field and fMRI does the same for hemoglobin which binds to oxygen whereby hemoglobin with and without oxygen react differently to fMRIs

42
Q

What are advantages and disadvantages of fMRI?

A
  • Brain activity increases blood flow, aka more haemoglobin to react to, increases oxygen use, so amount of haemoglobin without oxygen decreases → measuring people falling asleep
  • Scans (need more data) + interpretation is difficult (researchers take mean activity, reduce certain areas to their reaction during a task)
43
Q

What is phrenology and surrounding issues?

A

Inferring brain functions and behaviour form skull

44
Q

What is a sterotaxic Instrument?

A

Device with an electrode tip which is inserted into a hole in the skull and passes an electrical current in then damaged brain area

45
Q

What are the different forms of lesions ?

A

Electric - most damaging to axons and neuronsChemical - more common because it either damages, temporarily suspends neurons or synapsesGene-knockout approach - induce a mutation in a gene regulating neural cells, transmitters or receptors

46
Q

How does transcranial magnetic stimulation work?

A

Magnetic stimulation is applied to the scalp whereby stong stimulation produces a virtual lesion as it deactivates neurons below the magnets –> allows non invasive study of lesions on brain-behaviour link

47
Q

What are dendrites?

A

branching fibers that get narrower near their ends (etym: tree) that are lined with specialised synaptic receptors that receive information*

48
Q

What is a cranial nerve?

A

Any peripheral nerve that has its central nervous system connection with the brain, as opposed to the spinal cord.

49
Q

What’s the difference between vertebrates and invertebrates axons?

A

Vertebrate axons are covered with myelin sheaths interrupted by nodes of Ravier (connected to the spine) while invertebrates do not have that

50
Q

How do the shape of a neuron and connection relate?

A

Determines function and connective strength more area covered more informational input and output*

51
Q

What is the ratio of glia and neurons?

A

Glia (etym. Glue of neurons old) outnumber neurons in the cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in several other brain areas (cerebellum)

52
Q

excitotoxic lesion

A

A brain lesion produced by intracerebra l injection of an excitatory amino acid, such as kainic acid.

53
Q

stereotaxic surgery (stair ee oh tak sik)

A

Brain surgery using a stereotaxic apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain.

54
Q

bregma

A

The junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures of the skull; often used as a reference point for stereotaxic brain surgery.*

55
Q

stereotaxic atlas

A

A collection of drawings of sections of the brain ofa particular animal with measurements that provide coordinates for stereotaxic surgery.

56
Q

fixative

A

A chemical such as formalin; used to prepare and preserve body tissue. formalin (for ma /in) The aqueous solution of formaldehyde gas; the most commonly used tissue fixative.

57
Q

stereotaxic apparatus

A

A device that permits a surgeon to position an electrode or cannula into a specific part of the brain.

58
Q

microtome

A

An instrument that produces very thin slices of body tissues.

59
Q

anterograde labeling method

A

A histological method that labels the axons and terminal buttons of neurons whose cell bodies are located in a particular region.*

60
Q

immunocytochemical method

A

A histological method that uses radioactive antibodies or antibodies bound with a dye molecule to indicate the presence of particular proteins of peptides.*

61
Q

retrograde labeling method

A

A histological method that labels cell bodies that give rise to the terminal buttons that form synapses with cells in a particular region.*

62
Q

transneuronal tracing method.

A

A tracing method that identifies a series of neurons that form serial synaptic connections with each other, either in an anterograde or retrograde direction; involves infection of specific neurons with weakened forms of rabies or herpes viruses*

63
Q

optogenetic methods

A

The use of a genetically modified virus to insert light-sensitive ion channels into the membrane of particular neurons in the brain; can depolarize or hyperpolarize the neurons when light of the appropriate wavelength is applied.<img></img>*

64
Q

microelectrode

A

A very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons.<img></img>

65
Q

single-unit recording

A

Recording of the electrical activity of a single neuron.

66
Q

Give three examples of constructs that can be measured using standardised behavioural tasks in rodents.

A

Forced swim, tail suspension and learned helplessness tests.Tests of anhedonia (for example, sucrose preference, social interaction and sexual behaviour).
* Diverse tests of attention, working memory and episodic memory or prepulse inhibition.

67
Q

Q: Do the transgenic mouse models have construct validity?

A

A: The transgenic mouse models meet some criteria for face and predictive validity, but not construct validity

68
Q

What is the issue surrounding construct validity and the use of animal research in psychopathology?

A
  1. Injecting animals with a known genetic mutation linked to the disease → not possible
  2. Altering the expression of proteins hypothesised to lead to disease pathogenesis → lack of human evidenceExposure to validated environmental risk factors → not as straightforward
  3. how penetrant a given genetic variant is in producing a disorder/ how clearly linked; lack of human evidence for common genetic variants being irrefutably linked to mental health conditions*
69
Q

brain area that is rich in dopamine and is central to the brain’s reinforcement system

A

nucleus accumbens

70
Q

The main purpose of the Diffusion tensor imaging technique is that it helps researchers identify:
a. which brain regions are particularly active during certain stimuli.
b. how specific brain regions look when they are damaged.
c. white matter and how different brain regions are connected.
d. the timing of brain activity relative to presentation of certain visual stimuli

A

C

71
Q

A researcher wants to compare the volume of grey matter in the brain during development, starting in early development until adulthood. Which of the following methods would be the most suitable?
a. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
b. Computerized tomography (CT)
c. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
d. Optogenetic stimulation

A

A

72
Q

What’s the defining difference between MRI and CT

A

Although CT is used for structural/anatomical imaging of the brain, it requires X-rays - this is not the most suitable to be used in child and multiple times during development.

73
Q

What does the corpus callosum do?

A

communicate between the two hemispheres

74
Q

What are the layers of the brain/spinal chord? (In order)

A

meningees > dura > arachnoidea > pia

75
Q

What does this sequence of images show?

A

EEG - TMS machine- PET – FMRI – CT and CT scan – MEG scan

76
Q

How invasive are the different neuroimaging techniques?

A

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