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BIO T2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the synaptic effect of amphetamine?

A

blocks reuptake of dopamine and other transmitters

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2
Q

What is the synaptic effect of cocaine?

A

blocks reuptake of dopamine and other transmitters

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3
Q

What is the synaptic effect of methylphenidate?

A

gradually blocks dopamine reuptake

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4
Q

What is another name for methylphenidate?

A

Ritalin

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5
Q

What is the synaptic effect of MDMA?

A

releases dopamine and serotonin

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6
Q

What is the synaptic effect of Nicotine?

A

stimulates acetylcholine receptors which among other effects increases dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens

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7
Q

What is the synaptic effect of Opiates?

A

stimulates endorphin receptors

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8
Q

What is the synaptic effect of cannabinoids?

A

triggers negative feedback receptors, which usually respond to anandamide and 2AG on presynaptic cells

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9
Q

What is the synaptic effect of hallucinogens?| like LSD

A

Stimulates serotonin type 2A receptors (5-HT2a)

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10
Q

Where are neurotransmitters and neuropeptides synthesised?

A

transmitters: presynaptic terminalpeptides: cell body

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11
Q

Where are neurotransmitters and neuropeptides released?

A
  • transmitters: axon ending
  • peptides: from dendrites, soma, and sides of axon
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12
Q

Whom are neurotransmitters and neuropeptides released by?

A
  • transmitters: single action potential
  • peptides: repeated depolarisation
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13
Q

What are the effects of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides on their respectively neighbouring cells?

A
  • transmitters: no effect
  • peptides: they also release peptides
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14
Q

How do the effects of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides spread?

A
  • transmitters: to receptors of adjacent postsynaptic cells
  • peptides: diffuse to wide areas
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15
Q

How long do neurotransmitters and neuropeptides effects last?

A
  • transmitters: milliseconds to seconds
  • peptides: minutes
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16
Q

What two categories can cells be placed into

A
  • eukaryotic:membrane-enclosed DNA inside the nucleus ; membrane-bound organelles of varying shapes and sizes
  • prokaryotic: nomembrane-bound DNA and no other membrane-bound organelles
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17
Q

What is the phospholipid bilayer and its railroad track appearance?

A

hydrophobic tails of phospholipids that are the interior of the membrane while their polar head group are seperated by the inner hydrophobic lipid chain portion –> impermeability to hydrophilic molecules, viscosity that allows proteins and phospholipids to move freely

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18
Q

What is cholesterol’s role when it comes to temperature and membrane permeability?

A

can insert itself into the phospholipid bilayer because of its polar hydroxyl group at the end of the phospholipid head group
* High temperature: reduces permeability by hindering the movement of phospholipid of the outer part
* Low temperature: prevents membranes from freezing and maintains membrane fluidity by interfering with interactions between fatty acid chains

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19
Q

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A
  • plasma membrane as a fluid combination of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins.
  • Carbohydrates attached to lipids (glycolipids) and to proteins (glycoproteins) extend from the outward-facing surface of the membrane
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20
Q

Which two scientists are regarded as the founders of neuroscience and why?

A

Charles Sherrington: synapse guy
* Santiago Ramón y Cajal: neurons exist as separate units guy

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21
Q

Which type of animal cells do not contain nuclei?

A

Red blood cells

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22
Q

What do the protein channels in the plasma membrane let pass through?

A

controlled flow of water, oxygen, sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and other important chemicals

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23
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

A

Membranous network studded with ribosomes involved in protein synthesis

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24
Q

Mitochondria

A

Membrane enclosed organelle responsible for generating chemical energy

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25
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A

Membranous network involved in lipid synthesis, regulation of calcium and metabolism of carbohydrates

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26
Q

Lysosome

A

Contains enzymes to remove waste

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27
Q

Nucleolus

A

Within the nucleus composed of proteins and nucleic acids

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28
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Sorts and chemically modifies proteins for specific uses

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29
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Made up a of different types of tube-like structures responsible for maintaining shape of cell

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30
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A

Ribonucleic acids and proteins in the cytoplasm involved in manufacture of proteins

31
Q

What is optogenetics and why is it used?

A

Research field in which particular cells are stimulated through light
* Psychiatric and medical disorders (narcolepsy) because controlling excitatory and inhibitory functions can be seen/measured

32
Q

What is the presynaptic terminal?

A

The end bulb of each dendrite releases chemicals and electrical signals to communicate with other neurons or cells via their postsynaptic bulbs

33
Q

How do the shape of a neuron and connection relate?

A

Determines function and connective strength more area covered more informational input and output*

34
Q

What is the ratio of glia and neurons?

A

Glia (etym. Glue of neurons old) outnumber neurons in the cerebral cortex, but neurons outnumber glia in several other brain areas (cerebellum)

35
Q

What are the two types of synapses?

A

Synapses = junctions between neurons allowing communicationelectrical synapses = fast but rarely in the brainchemical synapses: most common in the brain; slow in signalling, but more diverse functions

36
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

chemical messengers that allow the transmission of signals across chemical synapses

37
Q

What are the four major structures that compose a neuron?

A

Dendrites, soma (cell body), axon, and presynaptic endings

38
Q

Explain the blood-brain barrier including which cells get to pass

A

viruses> Rabies, spirochete → syphilis Actively transported:

  • Glucose (fuel)amino acids (protein building blocks)
  • Water: through protein channels in the plasma membrane of endothelial cells purines, choline, a few vitamins, iron, hormones and insulin* <img></img>*
39
Q

Why is the blood-brain barrier needed

A

the mechanism that excludes most chemicals from the vertebrate brain is needed because neurons cannot be replaced. When there is an infection there antibodies could potentially distroy neurons like they do in other parts of the body but skin cells or blood cells can be renewed.

40
Q

What cell is crucial for the blood-brain barrier?

A

endothelial cells that form the walls of the capillaries, which do not let viruses nor nutrients pass depending on their ability to dissolve

41
Q

What molecules can pass freely the capillaries of the blood-brain barrier?

A

fat-soluble molecules (vitamins, drugs), small uncharged molecules oxygen & carbon dioxide

42
Q

How do Alzheimer’s and cancer and the blood-brain barrier relate?

A

Capillary walls are weakenedTreatment molecules cannot pass

43
Q

How much glucose and oxygen uses the brain and why?

A

25% of body’s glucose, 20% of oxygen because of energy metabolisation;

44
Q

Why can’t the brain rely on ketone and lactate?

A

glucose is the only nutrient that crosses the blood–brain barrier in large quantities

45
Q

How does the liver produce glucose in case of malnourishment or starvation?

A

from many kinds of carbohydrates and amino acids, as well as from glycerol, a breakdown product from fats but the issue then becomes the lack of vitamin B (thiamine)

46
Q

What does a lack of thiamine lead to?

A

leads to death of neurons and a condition called Korsakoff’s syndrome, marked by severe memory impairments. (common in alcoholism)

47
Q

How much slower would neurons propagate without the myelin sheath?

A

30 times slower

48
Q

What do high concentrations of microglia indicate?

A

Infection, trauma, stroke

49
Q

What are perivascular feet?

A

Astrocytes attach to blood vessels and inducing their endothelial cells to form tight junctions that reinforce the blood-brain barrier and prevent moluclues passing into the cerebral fluid

50
Q

Why do astrocytes absorb potassium ions

A

regulate abnormal accumulation of extracellular potassium ions→ link to epileptic activity

51
Q

How does the electrical gradient function, and what prevents it from collapsing?
What does the sodium-potassium pump do?

A

transports three sodium ions out of the cell while drawing two potassium ions into the cell → sodium 10x outside the cell

52
Q

Why is the electrical and concentration gradient of potassium ions almost equal?

A

Being positively charged, the potassium leak through the membrane even when the gates are shut which increases the electrical gradient

53
Q

How are the electrical and concentration gradients for Potassium and Sodium?

A

Sodium (positive Na+) more concentrated outside but negative electrical gradient to the insidePotassium (K+) more concentrated inside so wants to leave but electrical gradient draws them back → almost balanced

54
Q

What is the function of the resting membrane potential?

A

resting potential prepares the neuron to respond rapidly

55
Q

What are the steps of the action potential?

A

Calcium, sodium channels and potassium channels open → potassium are not girlbosses so nothing happens → sodium channels open so sodium rushes into the axon → positive charge propergates → sodium is me in therapy (shuts down) at the peak of depolarisation but potassium channels stay opened and potassium flows out → depolarised and potassium channels close

56
Q

What are the three principles to remember to understand the chemical basis of the action potential?

A

1.At the start, sodium ions are mostly outside the neuron, and potassium ions are mostly inside.2. When the membrane is depolarized, sodium and potassium channels in the membrane open.3. At the peak of the action potential, the sodium channels close.

57
Q

Q: How does saltatory conduction conserve energy?

A

Saves energy by only letting sodium ions into the nodes of the myelinated part and not at every point of the axon

58
Q

Q: What happens to axons in multiple sclerosis?

A

A: the immune system attacks myelin sheaths → impairments in conducting action potentials and various symptoms including visual impairments and poor muscle coordination.

59
Q

What is the role of inhibitory synapses?

A

Needed for the trade-off between stimulated muscles and the rest
* Sensory input in one part leads to EPSP → to counterbalance

60
Q

What did Sherrington observe about the speed of conduction through reflex arcs, and what did this suggest about the existence of synapses?

A

<15m/s while axon communication is 40m/s
* Interneuronal space communication slows speed down → synapses are responsible<img></img>

61
Q

What is temporal summation, and how did Sherrington use it to explain how repeated stimuli can produce a stronger reflex?

A

Repeated stimuli in short time accumulates → graded potential is created (EPSP/depolarisation) → exceeds the threshold in the postsynaptic neuron if not the excitation decays over time<img></img>

62
Q

What is spatial summation, and how did Sherrington demonstrate this property of synapses?

A

Synaptic input from different locations synchronised (different sensory axons) → EPSP can sum up <img></img>

63
Q

What is the process of synaptic transmission and how does it differ from the conduction of action potentials along an axon?

A

Summation effects vary on the order of sensory input

64
Q

What is the purpose of inhibitory synapses?

A

Inhibitory synapses are a testament of the connections at the spinal chord (when EPSP is triggered in one part an IPSP needs to occur somewhere else) and that muscles counterbalance each other*

65
Q

How do inhibitory synapses work?

A

Postsynaptic cell needs to be hyperpolarised → +potassium channels open and + leaves the cell → or -choloride ions enter the cell*

66
Q

What was Loewi’s experiment and what did he discover?

A

Loewi stimulated a frogs vagus nerve → slows heartbeat and then transferred the fluid around the heart to another frog also slowed heart in second frog → most synapse communicate chemically

67
Q

What are the sequence of events at chemical transmission?

A

Neuron synthesises chemicals
→ neurotransmitters
→ also in axon terminals/ neuropeptides in cell body
→ action potential propagates and calcium releases neurotransmitters in the terminals into the synaptic cleft
→ travel to the postsynaptic neuron
→ neurotransmitter separate from receptors and are potentially returned to presynaptic neuron
→ postsynaptic neuron communicates with presynapse to control neurotransmitters<img></img>

68
Q

What are neurotransmitters and how are they synthesized?

A

Chemicals produced and released by neurons around 100 most shared gaba is the oldest;<img></img>

69
Q

What is MAO, and what is its role in neurons that release serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine?

A

Monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibiting the production of neurons that release serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine by breaking them into nonfuctioning units → used as basis for antidepressants

70
Q

What is the most common neurotransmitter in the nervous system?

A

Glutamate
* most inhibitory ionotropic synapses function with GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), opening chloride gates to have -chloride in the cells
* Glycine mostly in spinal cordAcetycholine mostly excitatory ionotropic synapses

71
Q

What is the difference between ionotropic and metabotropic effects?

A

Sequence of metabolic effects after 30ms not 5ms: smell, pain,taste, arousal, emotion
Don’t depend on GABA or glutamine, but a lot of different NTs
First messenger aka NT binds at receptor → otherside connected with a guanosine triphosphate G-protein releases energy → more second messengers<img></img>

72
Q

What are neuropeptides?

A

Neuromodulators different function to neurotransmitters, similar to hormones in producing longer lasting effects by alterning gene activity

73
Q

What are the six main neurotransmitters found in the brain?

A

Acetylcholine GABA Serotonine Dopamine NorepinephrineEpinephrine

74
Q

What is an EPSP and IPSP and how are they caused?

A
  • Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
  • Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

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