Special Senses (last Topic Before Midterms) Flashcards
(253 cards)
1
Q
What is the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment ?
A
Sensation
is the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment. The nature of the sensation and the type of reaction generated vary according to the ultimate destination of nerve impulses (action potentials) that convey sensory information to the CNS. Sensory impulses that reach the spinal cord may serve as input for spinal reflexes, such as the stretch reflex you learned about in Chapter 13. Sensory impulses that reach the lower brainstem elicit more complex reflexes, such as changes in heart rate or breathing rate. When sen- sory impulses reach the cerebral cortex, we become consciously aware of the sensory stimuli and can precisely locate and identify spe- cific sensations such as touch, pain, hearing, or taste. As you learned
2
Q
What is the conscious interpretation of sensations performed mainly by the cerebral cortex ?
A
Perception
is the conscious interpretation of sensations and is primarily a function of the cerebral cortex. We have no perception of some sensory information because it never reaches the cerebral cortex. For example, certain sensory receptors constantly monitor the pressure of blood in blood vessels. Because the nerve impulses conveying blood pressure information propagate to the car- diovascular center in the medulla oblongata rather than to the cere- bral cortex, blood pressure is not consciously perceived.
3
Q
What term defines this description ?
We know that visually something changed / happened infront of us or (on our devices[phone], or environment) but we dont know what it is
(We could be subcontiously aware)
A
Sensation
is the conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment. The nature of the sensation and the type of reaction generated vary according to the ultimate destination of nerve impulses (action potentials) that convey sensory information to the CNS. Sensory impulses that reach the spinal cord may serve as input for spinal reflexes, such as the stretch reflex you learned about in Chapter 13. Sensory impulses that reach the lower brainstem elicit more complex reflexes, such as changes in heart rate or breathing rate. When sen- sory impulses reach the cerebral cortex, we become consciously aware of the sensory stimuli and can precisely locate and identify spe- cific sensations such as touch, pain, hearing, or taste. As you learned
4
Q
By utilizing this term we understand a change or a sensation of change that it is a picture of an actor
A
Perception
is the conscious interpretation of sensa- tions and is primarily a function of the cerebral cortex. We have no perception of some sensory information because it never reaches the cerebral cortex. For example, certain sensory receptors constantly monitor the pressure of blood in blood vessels. Because the nerve impulses conveying blood pressure information propagate to the car- diovascular center in the medulla oblongata rather than to the cere- bral cortex, blood pressure is not consciously perceived.
5
Q
What do you call each type of sensation’s like?
(What are all of these things called?)
Touch
Vision
Pain
Hearing
Etc
A
Sensory Modalities
6
Q
What are the 2 classifications of sensory modality?
A
General Senses
Special Senses
7
Q
What senses include the somatic senses and visceral senses?
A
General Senses
(Not sure on this info)
refer to both somatic senses and visceral senses. Somatic senses (somat- = of the body) include tactile sen- sations (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle), thermal sensa- tions (warm and cold), pain sensations, and proprioceptive sensations. Proprioceptive sensations allow perception of both the static (nonmoving) positions of limbs and body parts (joint and muscle position sense) and movements of the limbs and head.
8
Q
What are the sensations that are felt on our body?
A
Somatic Senses
(Not sure on this info)
include tactile sen- sations (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle), thermal sensa- tions (warm and cold), pain sensations, and proprioceptive sensations. Proprioceptive sensations allow perception of both the static (nonmoving) positions of limbs and body parts (joint and muscle position sense) and movements of the limbs and head.
9
Q
What senses are associated with your internal organs?
A
Visceral Senses
provide information about conditions within internal organs, for example, pressure, stretch, chemicals, nausea, hunger, and temperature.
10
Q
What senses include these sensory modalities?
Smell
Taste
Vision
Hearing
Equilibrium
A
Special Senses
11
Q
What is the first step (the beginning step) of the process of sensation?
A
- Stimulation of the Sensory Receptors
An appropriate stimulus must occur within the sensory receptor’s receptive field, that is, the body region where stimulation activates the receptor and produces a response.
12
Q
What type of process is this?
- Stimulation of the sensory receptors
- Transudction of the stimulus
- Generation of nerve impulses
- Integration of sensory input
A
Process of Sensation
13
Q
When the sensory receptor is stimulated, It will convert the energy from the stimuli into your action potential and that is your what?
A
Transduction of the stimulus
A sensory receptor converts the energy in the stimulus into a graded potential, a process known as transduction. Recall that graded potentials vary in amplitude (size), depending on the strength of the stimulus that causes them, and are not propagated. (See Section 12.3 to review the differ- ences between action potentials and graded potentials.) Each type of sensory receptor exhibits selectivity: It can transduce (convert) only one kind of stimulus. For example, odorant molecules in the air stimulate olfactory (smell) receptors in the nose, which trans- duce the molecules’ chemical energy into electrical energy in the form of a graded potential.
14
Q
What is the second step of the process of sensation?
A
- Transduction of the stimulus
A sensory receptor converts the energy in the stimulus into a graded potential, a process known as transduction. Recall that graded potentials vary in amplitude (size), depending on the strength of the stimulus that causes them, and are not propagated. (See Section 12.3 to review the differ- ences between action potentials and graded potentials.) Each type of sensory receptor exhibits selectivity: It can transduce (convert) only one kind of stimulus. For example, odorant molecules in the air stimulate olfactory (smell) receptors in the nose, which trans- duce the molecules’ chemical energy into electrical energy in the form of a graded potential.
15
Q
What is the third step of the process of sensation?
A
- Generation of nerve impulses
When a graded potential in a sen- sory neuron reaches threshold, it triggers one or more nerve im- pulses, which then propagate toward the CNS. Sensory neurons that conduct impulses from the PNS into the CNS are called first- order neurons (see Section 16.3).
16
Q
What is the forth step of the process of sensation?
A
- Integration of sensory input
17
Q
The conversion of the energy from your stimuli becomes your action potential which is reaching a certain threshold will generate your what?
A
Nerve Impulse
18
Q
Nerve impulses will usually be directed into your (1)_____ wherein that impulse will be (2)_______
A
- CNS
- Integrated / Processed
19
Q
Your on a date and someone touches your hand, you feel the sensation of touch upon what stage you realized “oh its my 7th girlfriend touching my hand”?
What was being stimulated in the sensory receptor
A
- Tactile touch
- Integration of sensory input
20
Q
What are the structures that recognize and accept sensory stimuli?
A
Sensory Receptors
______________________
Types of Sensory Receptors Several structural and functional characteristics of sensory receptors can be used to group them into different classes. These include (1) microscopic structure, (2) location of the receptors and the origin of stimuli that activate them, and (3) type of stimulus detected.
21
Q
What can either be free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings or separated cells?
A
Sensory Receptors
______________________
Types of Sensory Receptors Several structural and functional characteristics of sensory receptors can be used to group them into different classes. These include (1) microscopic structure, (2) location of the receptors and the origin of stimuli that activate them, and (3) type of stimulus detected.
22
Q
What are bare dendrites that are used to detect pain, temperature, tickle, itch and some touch sensations?
A
free nerve endings
What are bare (uncapsulated) (meaning there’s no capsule on the) dendrites that are used to detect pain, temperature, tickle, itch and some touch sensations?
(Different interpretation)
are bare (not encapsulated) dendrites; they lack any structural specializations that can be seen under a light microscope (
23
Q
What specialized sensory receptors, encased in connective tissue, are responsible for detecting pressure, vibration, and some touch in the body?
A
Encapsulated nerve endings
Their dendrites are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule that has a distinctive microscopic structure—for example, lamellated cor- puscles
24
Q
When the dendrites are inside a connective tissue capsule they are what?
(Very easy….bro..🤣)
A
Encapsulated Nerve Endings
Their dendrites are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule that has a distinctive microscopic structure—for example, lamellated cor- puscles
25
What are sensory receptors for some special senses are specialized?
Separate cells
separate cells that synapse with sensory neurons. These include hair cells for hearing and equilibrium in the inner ear, gustatory receptors in taste buds (Figure 16.1c) and photoreceptors in the retina of the eye for vision. The olfactory recep- tors for the sense of smell are not separate cells; instead, they are located in olfactory cilia, which are hair like structures that project from the dendrite of an olfactory receptor cell (a type of neuron).
26
What are not part of the sensory cell but they synapse with your sensory neurons?
Seperate Cells
separate cells that synapse with sensory neurons. These include hair cells for hearing and equilibrium in the inner ear, gustatory receptors in taste buds (Figure 16.1c) and photoreceptors in the retina of the eye for vision. The olfactory recep- tors for the sense of smell are not separate cells; instead, they are located in olfactory cilia, which are hair like structures that project from the dendrite of an olfactory receptor cell (a type of neuron).
27
What term include?
Gustatory Receptor Cells
Photoreceptors
Hair Cells
Separate Cells
separate cells that synapse with sensory neurons. These include hair cells for hearing and equilibrium in the inner ear, gustatory receptors in taste buds (Figure 16.1c) and photoreceptors in the retina of the eye for vision. The olfactory recep- tors for the sense of smell are not separate cells; instead, they are located in olfactory cilia, which are hair like structures that project from the dendrite of an olfactory receptor cell (a type of neuron).
28
what are specialized cells or nerve endings that detect and respond to different kinds of stimuli, such as light, sound, temperature, chemicals, pressure, and pain? (3)
Exteroreceptors
Interoreceptors
Proprioceptors
• Exteroceptors (EKS-ter-ō-sep′-tors) are located at or near the external surface of the body; they are sensitive to stimuli origi- nating outside the body and provide information about the external environment. The sensations of hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain are conveyed by exteroceptors.
• Interoceptors (IN-ter-ō-sep′-tors) or visceroceptors are located in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles, and the nervous system and monitor conditions in the internal environment. The nerve impulses produced by interoceptors usually are not consciously perceived; occasionally, however, activation of interoceptors by strong stimuli may be felt as pain or pressure.
• Proprioceptors (PRŌ-prē-ō-sep′-tors) are located in muscles, ten- dons, joints, and the inner ear. They provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, and the position and move- ment of your joints.
29
What pertains to the sensory receptors that are located at or near the external surface of the body?
Exteroreceptors
They may recognize tactile stimulation
are located at or near the external surface of the body; they are sensitive to stimuli origi- nating outside the body and provide information about the external environment. The sensations of hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain are conveyed by exteroceptors.
30
What is also known as visceroceptors receptors which monitors the condition inside the internal environment?
Interoceptors
are located in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles, and the nervous system and monitor conditions in the internal environment. The nerve impulses produced by interoceptors usually are not consciously perceived; occasionally, however, activation of interoceptors by strong stimuli may be felt as pain or pressure.
31
What recognizes body or joint position and sometimes even movement?
Proprioceptors
are located in muscles, ten- dons, joints, and the inner ear. They provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, and the position and move- ment of your joints.
32
Receptors may also be grouped based on location of the receptors and the origin of the stimuli that activate them.
What are these receptors? (6)
1. Mechanoreceptors
2. Thermoreceptors
3. Nociceptors
4. Photoreceptors
5. Chemoreceptors
6. Osmoreceptors
33
What are detectors that detect mechanical stimuli so this include sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, etc?
Mechanoreceptors
are sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as the deformation, stretching, or bending of cells. Mechanoreceptors pro- vide sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, and hearing and equilibrium. They also monitor the stretching of blood vessels and internal organs.
34
Within the type of stimulus detected, what detect changes in temperature?
Thermoreceptors
35
Within the type of stimulus detected, what responds to painful stimuli resulting from physical or chemical damage to tissue?
Nociceptors
36
Within the type of stimulus detected, what detects light that strikes the retina of the eye?
Photoreceptors
37
Within the type of stimulus detected, what detects chemicals in the mouth (taste), nose (smell), and body fluids?
Chemoreceptors
38
Within the type of stimulus detected, What detects the osmotic pressure of body fluids?
Osmoreceptors
39
Within the type of stimulus detected, What senses osmotic pressure of body fluids?
Osmoreceptors
40
Somatic sensations are divided into (4)
1. Tactile
2. Thermal
3. Pain
4. Proprioceptive
41
Within the Somatic sensations, what pertains to touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle
tactile sensations
Although we perceive differences among these sensations, they arise by activation of some of the same types of receptors. Several types of encapsulated mechanoreceptors attached to large-diameter myelinated A fibers mediate sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration. Other tactile sensations, such as itch and tickle sensations, are detected by free nerve endings attached to small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers. Recall that larger-diameter, myelinated axons propagate nerve impulses more rapidly than do smaller-diameter, unmyelinated axons. Tactile receptors in the skin or subcutaneous layer include corpuscles of touch, hair root plexuses, type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors, type II cutaneous mechanore- ceptors, lamellated corpuscles, and free nerve endings
42
Thermal Sensations consists of?(2)
1. Cold receptors
2. Warm receptors
43
What are thermal sensations that are activated at temperatures between 10° and 35°C (50–95°F) activate cold receptors?
Cold receptors
are located in the stratum basale of the epider- mis and are attached to medium-diameter, myelinated A fibers, although a few connect to small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers.
44
What are thermal sensations that are activated at between 30° and 45°C (86–113°F).
Warm receptors
which are not as abundant as cold receptors, are located in the dermis and are attached to small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers
45
Within tactile receptors there are several receptors
These are Sensory receptors located at the skin
What are these? (6)
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
46
Which sensory receptors of the skin senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth?
Free nerve ending
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
47
Which sensory receptors of the skin senses continuous touch and pressure?
Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc)
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
48
Which sensory receptors of the skin senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations?
Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle)
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
49
Which sensory receptors of the skin senses skin stretching and pressure?
Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle)
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
50
Which sensory receptors of the skin senses onset of touch and low frequency vibrations?
Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle)
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
51
Which sensory receptors of the skin corpuscle senses high frequency vibrations?
Lamellated (pacinian)
1. Free nerve ending - senses pain, itch, tickle, cold, or warmth.
2. Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptor (tactile disc) - senses continuous touch and pressure.
3. Corpuscle of touch (Meissner corpuscle) - senses onset of touch and low-frequency vibrations.
4. Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptor (Ruffini corpuscle) - senses skin stretching and pressure.
5. Hair root plexus - senses movements on skin surface that disturb hairs.
6. Lamellated (pacinian) - corpuscle senses high- frequency vibrations.
52
What is the term for the phenomenon where patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations in the missing limb?
Phantom Limb Sensation
Patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations such as itching, pressure, tingling, or pain as if the limb were still there. This phenomenon is called phantom limb sensation. Although the limb has been removed, severed endings of sensory axons are still present in the remain- ing stump. If these severed endings are activated, the cerebral cortex inter- prets the sensation as coming from the sensory receptors in the nonexisting (phantom) limb. Another explanation for phantom limb sensation is that the area of the cerebral cortex that previously received sensory input from the missing limb undergoes extensive functional reorganization that allows it to respond to stimuli from another body part. The remodeling of this cortical area is thought to give rise to false sensory perceptions from the missing limb. Phantom limb pain can be very distressing to an amputee. Many report that the pain is severe or extremely intense, and that it often does not respond to traditional pain medication therapy. In such cases, alternative treatments may include electrical nerve stimulation, acupuncture, and biofeedback.
53
In phantom limb sensation, although the limb has been removed, severed endings of sensory axons are still present in the remain- ing stump. T or F?
T
If these severed endings are activated, the cerebral cortex inter- prets the sensation as coming from the sensory receptors in the nonexisting (phantom) limb. Another explanation for phantom limb sensation is that the area of the cerebral cortex that previously received sensory input from the missing limb undergoes extensive functional reorganization that allows it to respond to stimuli from another body part. The remodeling of this cortical area is thought to give rise to false sensory perceptions from the missing limb. Phantom limb pain can be very distressing to an amputee. Many report that the pain is severe or extremely intense, and that it often does not respond to traditional pain medication therapy. In such cases, alternative treatments may include electrical nerve stimulation, acupuncture, and biofeedback.
54
At the thermal sensations, if its too cold or too hot what gets activated?
Pain Receptors
55
What are thermal sensations that are activated at Temperatures below 10°C and above 45°C
Pain Receptors
primarily stimulate pain receptors, rather than thermoreceptors, producing painful sensations
56
Within the thermoreceptors, what are free nerve endings in every body tissue except brain?
Nociceptors
Nociceptors, the receptors for pain, are free nerve endings found in every tissue of the body except the brain (Figure 16.2). Intense ther- mal, mechanical, or chemical stimuli can activate nociceptors. Tissue irritation or injury releases chemicals such as prostaglandins, kinins, and potassium ions (K+) that stimulate nociceptors. Pain may persist even after a pain-producing stimulus is removed because pain- mediating chemicals linger, and because nociceptors exhibit very little adaptation. Conditions that elicit pain include excessive distension (stretching) of a structure, prolonged muscular contractions, muscle spasms, or ischemia (inadequate blood flow to an organ).
57
What are the two types of pain?
1. Fast pain
2. Slow pain
fast pain occurs very rapidly, usually within 0.1 second after a stimulus is applied, because the nerve impulses propagate along medium-diameter, myelinated A fibers. This type of pain is also known as acute, sharp, or pricking pain. The pain felt from a needle puncture or knife cut to the skin is fast pain. Fast pain is not felt in deeper tissues of the body.
The perception of slow pain, by contrast, begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied. It then gradually increases in in- tensity over a period of several seconds or minutes. Impulses for slow pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers. This type of pain, which may be excruciating, is also referred to as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain. Slow pain can occur both in the skin and in deeper tissues or internal organs. An example is the pain associated with a toothache. You can perceive the difference in onset of these two types of pain best when you injure a body part that is far from the brain because the conduction distance is long. When you stub your toe, for example, you first feel the sharp sensation of fast pain and then feel the slower, aching sensation of slow pain.
58
What are thermoreceptors that are free nerve endings in skin and mucous membranes of mouth, vagina, and anus?
Warm receptors and cold receptors
59
What type of pain is perceived a second or more after the stimulus?
Slow pain
The perception of slow pain, by contrast, begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied. It then gradually increases in in- tensity over a period of several seconds or minutes. Impulses for slow pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers. This type of pain, which may be excruciating, is also referred to as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain. Slow pain can occur both in the skin and in deeper tissues or internal organs. An example is the pain associated with a toothache. You can perceive the difference in onset of these two types of pain best when you injure a body part that is far from the brain because the conduction distance is long. When you stub your toe, for example, you first feel the sharp sensation of fast pain and then feel the slower, aching sensation of slow pain.
60
What type of pain is chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain?
Slow pain
The perception of slow pain, by contrast, begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied. It then gradually increases in in- tensity over a period of several seconds or minutes. Impulses for slow pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers. This type of pain, which may be excruciating, is also referred to as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain. Slow pain can occur both in the skin and in deeper tissues or internal organs. An example is the pain associated with a toothache. You can perceive the difference in onset of these two types of pain best when you injure a body part that is far from the brain because the conduction distance is long. When you stub your toe, for example, you first feel the sharp sensation of fast pain and then feel the slower, aching sensation of slow pain.
61
What type of pain that is acute, sharp, or pricking pain?
fast pain
occurs very rapidly, usually within 0.1 second after a stimulus is applied, because the nerve impulses propagate along medium-diameter, myelinated A fibers. This type of pain is also known as acute, sharp, or pricking pain. The pain felt from a needle puncture or knife cut to the skin is fast pain. Fast pain is not felt in deeper tissues of the body.
62
What type of pain is perceived with in 1 second?
Fast pain
occurs very rapidly, usually within 0.1 second after a stimulus is applied, because the nerve impulses propagate along medium-diameter, myelinated A fibers. This type of pain is also known as acute, sharp, or pricking pain. The pain felt from a needle puncture or knife cut to the skin is fast pain. Fast pain is not felt in deeper tissues of the body.
63
What type of pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers.
Slow Pain
The perception of slow pain, by contrast, begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied. It then gradually increases in in- tensity over a period of several seconds or minutes. Impulses for slow pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers. This type of pain, which may be excruciating, is also referred to as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain. Slow pain can occur both in the skin and in deeper tissues or internal organs. An example is the pain associated with a toothache. You can perceive the difference in onset of these two types of pain best when you injure a body part that is far from the brain because the conduction distance is long. When you stub your toe, for example, you first feel the sharp sensation of fast pain and then feel the slower, aching sensation of slow pain.
64
What pain is associated with a toothache?
Slow pain
The perception of slow pain, by contrast, begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied. It then gradually increases in in- tensity over a period of several seconds or minutes. Impulses for slow pain conduct along small-diameter, unmyelinated C fibers. This type of pain, which may be excruciating, is also referred to as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain. Slow pain can occur both in the skin and in deeper tissues or internal organs. An example is the pain associated with a toothache. You can perceive the difference in onset of these two types of pain best when you injure a body part that is far from the brain because the conduction distance is long. When you stub your toe, for example, you first feel the sharp sensation of fast pain and then feel the slower, aching sensation of slow pain.
65
What are pain sensations that arises from skin receptors?
superficial somatic pain
(Your free nerve endings)
66
What are pain sensations in the skeletal muscles, tendons and fascia cause?
deep somatic pain
stimulation of receptors in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons, and fascia causes deep somatic pain. Visceral pain re- sults from stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organs. If stimulation is diffuse (involves large areas), visceral pain can be severe. Diffuse stimu- lation of visceral nociceptors might result from distension or ischemia of an internal organ. For example, a kidney stone or a gallstone might cause severe pain by obstructing and distending a ureter or bile duct.
67
What are pain sensations in visceral organs and internal organs?
Visceral pain
results from stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organs. If stimulation is diffuse (involves large areas), visceral pain can be severe. Diffuse stimulation of visceral nociceptors might result from distension or ischemia of an internal organ. For example, a kidney stone or a gallstone might cause severe pain by obstructing and distending a ureter or bile duct.
68
What are injury in one area but is felt in a different part of the body?
Referred pain
the pain is felt in or just deep to the skin that overlies the stimulated organ, or in a surface area far from the stimulated organ. This phenomenon is called referred pain. Figure 16.3 shows skin regions to which visceral pain may be referred. In general, the visceral organ involved and the area to which the pain is re- ferred are served by the same segment of the spinal cord. For example, sensory fibers from the heart, the skin superficial to the heart, and the skin along the medial aspect of the left arm enter spinal cord segments T1 to T5. Thus, the pain of a heart attack typically is felt in the skin over the heart and along the medial aspect of the left arm.
Pain sensations sometimes occur out of proportion to minor damage, persist chronically due to an injury, or even appear for no obvious reason. In such cases, analgesia (an-al-JĒ-zē-a; an- = with- out; -algesia = pain) or pain relief is needed. Analgesic drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen (for example, Advil® or Motrin®) block formation of prostaglandins, which stimulate nociceptors. Local anesthetics, such as Novocaine®, provide short-term pain relief by blocking con- duction of nerve impulses along the axons of first-order pain neurons. Morphine and other opiate drugs (drugs derived from or containing opium) alter the quality of pain perception in the brain; pain is still sensed but it is no longer perceived as being so noxious. Many pain clinics use anticonvulsant and antidepressant medications to treat those suffering from chronic pain.
69
Your patient is experiencing A Myocardial infection. What areas are the pain felt? Also what kind of pain?
Chest area and down the medial side of left brachii
Referred pain is (down the medial side of left brachii)
Myocardial infection(heart attack)
70
What is in Proprioceptive Sensations?
71
What term describes the recognition of body parts?
Proprioception / Proprioceptive Sensations
allow us to recognize that parts of our body belong to us (self). They also allow us to know where our head and limbs are located and how they are moving even if we are not looking at them, so that we can walk, type, or dress without using our eyes
72
What is the term used to describe the sensory receptors located in muscles and tendons?
Proprioceptors
73
What term allow us to know where our head and limbs are located and how they are moving even if we are not looking at them, so that we can walk, type, or dress without using our eyes?
proprioception
/ Proprioceptive sensations
Proprioceptors are located in muscle tendons
Proprioceptive sensations (proprius = self or one’s own) are also called proprioception (prō-prē-ō-SEP-shun). Proprioceptive sensa- tions allow us to recognize that parts of our body belong to us (self). They also allow us to know where our head and limbs are located and how they are moving even if we are not looking at them, so that we can walk, type, or dress without using our eyes
Proprioceptive sensations arise in receptors termed proprioceptors. Those proprioceptors embedded in muscles (especially postural muscles) and tendons inform us of the degree to which muscles are contracted, the amount of tension on tendons, and the positions of joints. Hair cells of the inner ear monitor the orienta- tion of the head relative to the ground and head position during movements. The way they provide information for maintaining bal- ance and equilibrium will be described in Chapter 17. Because most proprioceptors adapt slowly and only slightly, the brain continually receives nerve impulses related to the position of different body parts and makes adjustments to ensure coordination.
74
What are the Types of proprioceptors (3)
1. Muscle Spindles
2. Tendon Organs
3. Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
Muscle spindles are the proprioceptors that monitor changes in the length of skeletal muscles and participate in stretch reflexes (shown in Figure 13.14). By adjusting how vigorously a muscle spindle responds to stretching of a skeletal muscle, the brain sets an overall level of muscle tone, the small degree of contraction that is present while the muscle is at rest.
Tendon Organs Tendon organs are slowly adapting receptors located at the junction of a tendon and a muscle. By initiating tendon reflexes (see Figure 13.15), tendon organs protect tendons and their associated muscles from damage due to excessive tension. (When a muscle contracts, it exerts a force that pulls the points of attachment of the muscle at either end toward each other. This force is the muscle tension.) Each tendon organ consists of a thin capsule of connective tissue that encloses a few tendon fascicles (bundles of collagen fibers) Penetrating the capsule are one or more sensory nerve endings that entwine among and around the collagen fibers of the tendon. When tension is applied to a muscle, the tendon organs gen- erate nerve impulses that propagate into the CNS, providing informa- tion about changes in muscle tension. The resulting tendon reflexes decrease muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation.
Joint Kinesthetic Receptors Several types of joint kin- esthetic receptors (kin′-es-THET-ik) are present within and around the articular capsules of synovial joints. Free nerve endings and type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors in the capsules of joints respond to pressure. Small lamellated corpuscles in the connective tissue out- side articular capsules respond to acceleration and deceleration of joints during movement. Joint ligaments contain receptors similar to tendon organs that adjust reflex inhibition of the adjacent muscles when excessive strain is placed on the joint.
Table 16.2 summarizes the types of somatic sensory receptors and the sensations they convey.
75
What are the proprioceptors that monitor changes in the length of skeletal muscles and participate in stretch reflexes?
Muscle spindles
are the proprioceptors that monitor changes in the length of skeletal muscles and participate in stretch reflexes (shown in Figure 13.14). By adjusting how vigorously a muscle spindle responds to stretching of a skeletal muscle, the brain sets an overall level of muscle tone, the small degree of contraction that is present while the muscle is at rest.
76
What are found at muscular tendonous Junction it helps protect the muscle and tendons from damage due to excessive tension or over stretching ?
Tendon organs
77
What exists in and around the joint capsule of the sinovial joints and respond to pressure acceleration and deceleration during movement?
joint kinesthetic receptors
78
What receptor helps to protect strain against excessive strain?
joint kinesthetic receptors
79
What generally has its own separate cells which makes them special?
Special senses
Sense of Hearing, sense of touch
80
What is the receptors for the sense of smell?
Olfaction
81
What occupies the superior part of the nasal cavity, covering the inferior surface of the cribriform plate and extending along the superior nasal concha?
olfactory epithelium
82
The human nose contain 10 million to 100million receptors for smell in the _________ of the superior part of the nasal cavity
Olfactory Epithelium
The human nose contain 10 million to 100million receptors for smell in the
“OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM” of the superior part of the nasal cavity
83
What are the 3 types of cells in the olfactory epithelium?
1. Basal cell
2. Olfactory receptor cell
3. Supporting Cell
84
what is the sensory cell of the olfactory epithelium?
Olfactory receptor cell
Get the stimuli/infoirmation
85
What continually undergo cell division to produce new olfactory receptor cells, which live for only about two months before being replaced?
Basal cells
86
What undergo’s mitosis to replace olfactory receptor cells?
Basel stem cells
87
What cell replaces old or dying olfactory receptor cells?
Basal cell
88
What are columnar epithelial cells of the mucous membrane lining the nose. They provide physical support, nourishment, and electrical insulation for the olfactory receptor cells and help detoxify chemicals that come in contact with the olfactory epi- thelium.
Supporting cell
89
What glands are your “Bowman’s glands”?
What do they produce?
What occurs afterwards ones molecules are desolved?
1. olfactory glands
2. Mucose
3. Transduction
90
What term pertains to the conversion of the energy of the stimuli into action potentials?
Transduction
91
What will occur if once these other molecules are absorbed and noted by olfactory receptor cells?
Transduction
92
When transduction occurs, receptors in the nasal mucosa send impulses along branches of olfactory nerve (CN1)
What are the 4 steps?
1. Through the cribriform plate
2. Synapse with the olfactory bulb
3. Impulses travel along the olfactory tract
4. Interpretation in the primary olfactory area in the cerebral cortex (temporal lobe)
(so you will be aware of the sensation of smell)
93
What is the binding of an odorant molecule to an all Factory receptor protein will trigger what process?
Olfactory Transduction
94
What are the steps to olfactory transduction? (3)
1. processes causes depolarization and
2. AP travels to the primary olfactory factory
3. impulse will travel to the frontal lobe in order to identify the odor
95
What is this process?
1. Chemical reactions involving cyclic AMP (cAMP) cause depolarization
2. Action potential travel to the primary olfactory area
3. Impulse travel to the frontal lobe for odor identification
Olfactory Transduction
96
What is a chemical sense, is much simpler than olfaction in that only five primary tastes can be distinguished: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami ?
Gustation / Taste
(Part of digestive system)
97
What contains receptors for the sensation of taste?
Taste buds
98
approximately _______ taste buds on our tongue as well. as on the soft pallet the firings and your epiglotis.
10,000
approximately 10,000 taste buds on our tongue as well. as on the soft pallet the firings and your epiglotis.
99
What is an oval body consisting of three kinds of epithelial cells: supporting cells, gustatory receptor cells, and basal cells?
taste bud
100
What are the 5 primary tastes?
1. Sour
2. Sweet
3. Salt
4. Bitter
5. Umami
101
What term is described as something meaty and savory
Umami
102
taste buds contain three kind of epithelial cells, what are these?
1. Supporting Cell
2. Gustatory receptor cell
3. Basal Cell
103
At this case, within taste buds
The (1)__________ surround about 50 gustatory receptor cells in each taste bud.
(2) What undergoes mitosis to replace old gustatory receptor cells?
(3) has the upward projection?
(4-5) are the___________ projections upward from each gustatory receptor cell to the external surface through the ___________, an opening in the taste bud.
1. Supporting cells
2. Basal Cell
3. Gustatory receptor cells
4. Gustatory microvilli
5. Taste pore
104
What do you call the elevations on the tongue?
Papillae
Taste buds are found in elevations on the tongue called papillae (pa-PIL-ē; singular is papilla), which increase the surface area and pro- vide a rough texture to the upper surface of the tongue (Figure 17.3a, b). Three types of papillae contain taste buds:
105
What are the 3 types of papillae taste buds?
1. Vallate papillae
2. Fungiform papillae
3. Foliate papillae
1. About 12 very large, circular vallate papillae (VAL-āt = wall-like) or circumvallate papillae form an inverted V-shaped row at the back of the tongue. Each of these papillae houses 100–300 taste buds.
2. Fungiform papillae (FUN-ji-form = mushroomlike) are mushroom- shaped elevations scattered over the entire surface of the tongue that contain about five taste buds each. . Foliate papillae (FO-lē-āt = leaflike) are located in small trenches on the lateral margins of the tongue, but most of their taste buds degenerate in early childhood. In addition, the entire surface of the tongue has filiform papillae (FIL-i-form = threadlike). These pointed, threadlike structures con- tain tactile receptors but no taste buds. They increase friction be- tween the tongue and food, making it easier for the tongue to move food in the oral cavity.
106
(1) What form an inverted V-shaped row at the back of the tongue? that contain about (2)_____ taste buds each Each of these papillae houses 100–300 taste buds?
1. vallate papillae / circumvallate papillae
2. 12
They are about 12pcs that contain 100-300 taste buds
107
(1) What are mushroom shaped elevations scattered over the entire surface of the tongue? that contain about _____ taste buds each?
1. Fungiform papillae
2. 5
108
What are located in small trenches on the lateral margins of the tongue, but most of their taste buds degenerate in early childhood?
Foliate papillae
109
What is pointed, threadlike structures contain tactile receptors but no taste buds. They increase friction between the tongue and food, making it easier for the tongue to move food in the oral cavity?
filiform papillae
110
What are the nerves that provide the sensations of taste? (3) and what do they do?
1. CN7 (facial nerve) - carries taste information from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
2. CN9 (glossopharyngeal)- carries taste information from the posterior 1/3 of the tongue
3. CN10 (vagus)- carries taste information from taste buds on the epiglottis and in the throat
111
This happens when you eat food the molecules will be absorbed by in this case the saliva
wherein it will be recognized by your gustatory receptor cells
wherein transduction will occur and therefore these nerve Impulses will go up into your brain via either your facial nerve your glossopharyngeal or vagus nerve into your primary gustatory area to be interpreted and processed to find out what we are eating or what's the taste of it
The Gustatory Pathway
112
What happens during the Gustatory Pathway?(5)
1. This happens when you eat food the molecules will be absorbed by in this case the saliva
2. it will be recognized by your gustatory receptor cells
3. Then the transduction will occur and therefore
4. these nerve Impulses will go up into your brain via either your facial nerve(CN7) your glossopharyngeal(CN9) or vagus nerve(CN10)
5. into your primary gustatory area to be interpreted and processed to find out what we are eating or what's the taste of it
113
More than half the sensory receptors in the human body are located in the ____.
eyes
114
What is the science that deals with the eyes and their disorders?
Ophthalmology
115
What is energy in the form of waves that radiates from the sun?
Electromagnetic radiation
electromagnetic radiation, including gamma rays, x-rays, UV rays, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, and radio waves. This range of electromagnetic radiation is known as the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 17.4). The distance between two consecutive peaks of an elec- tromagnetic wave is the wavelength. Wavelengths range from short to long; for example, gamma rays have wavelengths smaller than a na- nometer, and most radio waves have wavelengths greater than a meter.
The eyes are responsible for the detection of visible light, the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths ranging from about 400 to 700 nm. Visible light exhibits colors: The color of visible light depends on its wavelength. For example, light that has a wave- length of 400 nm is violet, and light that has a wavelength of 700 nm is red. An object can absorb certain wavelengths of visible light and reflect others; the object will appear the color of the wavelength that is reflected. For example, a green apple appears green because it reflects mostly green light and absorbs most other wavelengths of visible light. An object appears white because it reflects all wave- lengths of visible light. An object appears black because it absorbs all wavelengths of visible light.
116
What is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths ranging from about 400 to 700 nm?
Visible Light
The eyes are responsible for the detection of visible light, the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths ranging from about 400 to 700 nm.
Visible light exhibits colors: The color of visible light depends on its wavelength. For example, light that has a wave- length of 400 nm is violet, and light that has a wavelength of 700 nm is red. An object can absorb certain wavelengths of visible light and reflect others; the object will appear the color of the wavelength that is reflected. For example, a green apple appears green because it reflects mostly green light and absorbs most other wavelengths of visible light. An object appears white because it reflects all wave- lengths of visible light. An object appears black because it absorbs all wavelengths of visible light.
117
What is the distance between two consecutive peaks of electromagnetic wave?
Wavelength
118
What are the rays we cannot see? (4)
1. Gamma rays
2. X-rays
3. Micro waves
4. Radio waves
119
What are the rays we can see? (2)
Visible Light!
Which is UV & Infrared rays
120
What control eyelid movement?
Palpebral muscles
Palpi (eyelids)
121
What causes the blinking?(blinking of the eyes)
Palpebral Muscles
122
What are the space between the upper and lower eyelids that exposes the eyeball?
palpebral fissure
They are the space in between your eyelids its like the area of your eyelashes the area of vision
123
What shades the eyes during sleep, protect the eyes from excessive light and foreign objects, and spread lubricating secretions over the eyeballs?
Palpebrae
(Eyelids)
124
The ______ eyelid is more movable than the other eyelid and contains in its superior region the levator palpebrae superioris muscle
Upper eyelid
The upper eyelid is more movable than the lower and contains in its superior region the levator palpebrae supe- rioris muscle
125
What Elevates the palpebra?
Palpebral muscle
126
What Structure is activated when we cry? What location?
Lacrimal Gland
Located in the Medial commisure
127
What are responsible for moving the eyeballs in all directions?
Extrinsic Eye Muscle
128
A pigeon took a shit in your left shoulder
What position does the extrinsic eye muscles move in?
Right Superior Oblique
Left Inferior Rectus
^SR-LRvIR><^IOvSO-MR……….><
129
What is a thin protective mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and covers the sclera?
Conjunctiva
Protective line that protects the mucous membrane
130
What is the protective line that protects the mucous membrane?
Conjuctiva
131
pink eye?
Conjunctivitis
132
What is a fold of connective tissue that gives form to the eyelids?
Tarsal Plate
133
Tarsal plate contains what type of glands? What are these glands?
A row of sebaceous (tarsal glands & meibomian glands)
134
What do sebaceous glands do in the tarsal plate? What are these glands?
Tarsal & Meibomian sebaceous glands keep the eyelids from sticking to each other
135
What keeps the eyelids from sticking to each other?
Tarsal Glands
Meibomian glands
(These are sebaceous glands within the tarsal plate)
136
Secretes oils to the eye
Tarsal Glands
Meibomian glands
(So it will not stick)
(These are sebaceous glands within the tarsal plate)
137
What produces tears?
Lacrimal glands
138
What produces and drains tears?
Lacrimal Apparatus
139
What is this process?
(1) Lacrimal gland secretes tears into
(2) Excretory lacrimal ducts, which distribute tears over surface of eyeball
(3) Superior or inferior lacrimal canaliculi drain tears into
(4) Lacrimal sac, which drains into
(5) Nasolacrimal duct, which drains tears into the
(6) Nasal Cavity
Flow Of Tears
140
At the flow of tears,
What is this process?
(1)_____________ secretes tears into
(2)____________, which distribute tears over surface of eyeball
(3)_____________ drain tears into
(4)_____________ which drains into
(5)_____________, which drains tears into
(6)_____________
1. Lacrimal gland
2. Excretory lacrimal ducts
3. Superior or inferior lacrimal canaliculi
4. Lacrimal sac
5. Nasolacrimal duct
6. Nasal Cavity
(1) Lacrimal gland secretes tears into
(2) Excretory lacrimal ducts, which distribute tears over surface of eyeball
(3) Superior or inferior lacrimal canaliculi drain tears into
(4) Lacrimal sac, which drains into
(5) Nasolacrimal duct, which drains tears into the
(6) Nasal Cavity
141
When we cry so hard we feel like there is ____ coming out our nose
Mucus / snot
142
What are the 3 layers of the eyeball?
1. Fibrous tunic
2. Vascular tunic
3. Retina
143
Tunic means?
Coats
144
What are the two coats of the eyeball?
Fibrous tunic
Vascular tunic
145
What tunic contains the cornea and sclera?
Fibrous Tunic
Cornea (covers the iris[colored part of eye]): Admits and refracts (bends) light.
Sclera (whites of your eye): Provides shape and protects inner parts.
146
What tunic contains the choroid, ciliary body and iris?
Vascular Tunic
147
What controls the size of the pupil based on autonomic reflexes?
Iris
148
______ as circular muscle of iris contracts from bright light.
What system occurs?
Pupil Constricts
Parasympathetic
149
_________ as radial muscle of iris contract.
What system occurs?
Pupil Dilates
Sympathetic System
150
Type of light when pupil is at a normal position?
Normal Light
151
what lines posterior three-quarters of the inner layer of the eyeball?
Retina
3/4
152
What layer of the eyeball consists of pigmented layers and neural layers?
Retina
153
What layer of the eyeball consists of Iris, ciliary body & choroid?
Vascular Tunic
154
What layer of the eyeball consists of Sclera & Cornea?
Fibrous Tunic
155
Sensations of eyesight?
Pigmented layer and neural layer
of retina layer of the eyeball
156
When light hits the retina, information will trigger transduction and will go to the _______ which will go up into the brain.
CN2 (Optic Nerve)
157
Everything within the eyeball is a neural layer besides one particular spot which is what?
Optic Disc
Has no sensory receptor
158
What is the point at which the CN2 will exit the eye?
Optic Disc
Has no sensory receptor
159
It is known as the blind spot?
Optic Disk
Has no sensory receptor
160
When all of the sensory receptors in the retina converge into your CN2 it exits via optic disc and therefore since there is no sensory receptors at that exit you call this what?
Blind Spot
161
What is within the retina thats a yellow spot
Macula Lutea
162
It is in the exact center of the retina?
Macula Lutea
163
What is found in the center of the macula lutea?
Fovea Centralis
164
What area has the highest visual acuity in the retina?
Fovea Centralis
165
What area contains only cones?
Fovea Centralis
Cones(receptor)
166
The retina contains what type of sensors?
Photoreceptors
167
What are receptors that detect light?
Photoreceptors
168
What are the 2 types of photoreceptors?
Cones - used to produce color vision
Rods - used to see in dim light
169
What photoreceptors are used to see in dim light?
Rods
170
What photoreceptors are used to produce color vision?
Cones
171
How does information flow from photoreceptors?
Outer synaptic
->
Bipolar cells
->
Inner synaptic layer
->
Ganglion Cells
(Axons of these exit as CN2)
172
What is this?
Outer synaptic
->
Bipolar cells
->
Inner synaptic layer
->
Ganglion Cells
(Axons of these exit as CN2)
information flow from photoreceptors
173
The eye has a lens……. The lens will divide the eye into?(2)
1. Anterior Cavity
2. Posterior Cavity
174
What type of cavity is filled with aqueous humor?
Anterior Cavity
175
What type of cavity is filled with the vitreous humor?
Posterior Cavity (vitreous chamber)
176
What is between the iris and cornea?
Anterior Chamber
177
What is behind the iris and in front of the lens?
Posterior Chamber
178
When light hits our eyes it passes through what?
>Cornea
>> Anterior Chamber
>>> Pupil
>>>> Vosterior Chamber
>>>>>> Lens
>>>>>>> Vitreous humor
>>>>>>>>> Projected onto the retina
179
What is a structure inside your eyeball?
Lens
180
We are able to see because of the presence of?
Light
181
When light passes through our eyes it ________
Refracts (bends)
182
When light rays traveling through a transparent substance pass into a second transparent substance with a different density, they bend at the junction between the two substances ?
refraction
When light rays traveling through a transparent substance (such as air) pass into a second transparent substance with a different density (such as water), they bend at the junction between the two substances
As light rays enter the eye, they are refracted at the anterior and posterior surfaces of the cornea. Both surfaces of the lens of the eye further refract the light rays so they come into exact focus on the retina.
183
Images focused on the retina are (1)___________ and ____________ due to refraction the brain corrects the image
1. Inverted (upside down)
2. Right to left reversal
Images focused on the retina are inverted (upside down) (Figure 17.12b, c). They also undergo right-to-left reversal; that is, light from the right side of an object strikes the left side of the retina, and vice versa. The reason the world does not look inverted and reversed is that the brain “learns” early in life to coordinate visual images with the orientations of objects. The brain stores the inverted and reversed images we acquired when we first reached for and touched objects and interprets those visual images as being correctly oriented in space.
184
What must accomodate to properly focus on the object?
Lens
185
The image is projected onto the __________, the site where vision is the sharpest
fovea centralis
The image is projected onto the fovea centralis, the site where vision is the sharpest
186
What can sufficiently refract light rays from an object 6 m (20 ft) away so that a clear image is focused on the retina?
Emmetropic eye (Normal eye)
187
many people lack this ability because of refraction abnormalities?
emmetropic eye
188
What is known as nearsightedness?
Myopia
189
What refraction abnormality occurs when the eyeball is too long relative to the focusing power of the cornea and lens, or when the lens is thicker than normal, so an image converges in front of the retina?
myopia
190
What type of corrective lens do you use for refraction abnormalities specifically myopia?
Concave lens
191
What is known as farsightedness?
Hyperopia / Hypermetropia
192
It is the opposite of myopia?
Hyperopia
193
What type of corrective lens do you use for refraction abnormalities specifically hyperopia?
Convex lens
194
What refraction abnormality is when the eyeball length is short relative to the focusing power of the cornea and lens, or the lens is thinner than normal, so an image converges behind the retina?
hyperopia
195
What are the refraction abnormalities?
myopic
hyperopia
astigmatism
196
either the cornea, the lens or both has an irregular curvature
Astigmatism
197
______ and ______ that convert light energy into neural impulses, were named for the appearance of their outer segments
1. Rods
2. Cons
198
Rods and cones contain _________ necessary for the absorption of light that will initiate the events that lead to production of a receptor potential.
Photopigments
199
What type of photopigments does rods have?
Rhodopsin
200
What type of photopigments does cons have?
Red
Green
Blue
201
What specific molecules within the photoreceptor cells respond to light in a cyclical process?
Photopigments
202
What is the cyclical process of the photopigments when they respond to light?
(Light enters)
1. Isomerization of retinal
2. trans-retinal separates
from opsin (bleaching)
3. Retinal isomerase
converts trans to cisretinal
4. cis-retinal binds to opsin (regeneration)
203
Retinal, a derivative of vitamin _____, is the light-absorbing part of all visual photopigments.
Vitamin A
204
What type of adaptation happens when you emerge from dark surroundings (say, a tunnel) into the sunshine?
light adaptation
205
occurs when your visual system adjusts in seconds to the brighter environment by decreasing its sensitivity
light adaptation
206
What type of adaptation happens when you enter a darkened room such as a theater, your visual system undergoes?
dark adaptation
207
What type of adaptation ccurs when its sensitivity increases slowly over many minutes?
dark adaptation
208
Dark to light surrounding
Light Adaptation
209
Light to dark surrounding
Dark Adaptation
210
Type of adaptation that occurs in seconds?
Light adaptation
211
Type of adaptation that takes minutes to complete
Dark adaptation
212
The difference in the rates of bleaching and regeneration of the ______________ accounts for some (but not all) of the sensitivity changes during light and dark adaptation.
photopigments in the rods and cones
213
What causes rod photoreceptors to decrease the release of the inhibitory neurotransmitter glutamate?
Light
214
In (1)___________, rod photoreceptors release inhibitory neurotransmitter glutamate.
This inhibits bipolar cells from transmitting signals to (2)_________ which provide output from the retina to the brain
1. Darkness
2. ganglion cells
In darkness, rod photoreceptors release inhibitory neurotransmitter glutamate.
215
What are the axons of the retinal ganglion cells which provide output from the retina to the brain. Which also pass through the optic chiasm?
CN2 (Optic Nerve)
216
What pathway is for vision that begins when the rods and cones convert light energy into neural signals that are directed to the CN2 nerves?
Neural Pathway
217
What is a crossing point of the optic nerves?
optic chiasm
218
What is the neural pathway for vision? (6)
>Optic (II) nerve
>>Optic chiasm
>>>Optic tract
>>>>Lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus
>>>>>Optic Radiation
>>>>>>Primary visual area of cerebral cortex(area 17)
219
because our eyes are located anteriorly in our heads, the visual fields overlap considerably, we have _____________ due to the large region where the visual fields of the two eyes overlap
binocular vision
220
What are the two regions of the visual field of each eye?
Nasal half
Temporal half
nasal (central) half and the temporal (peripheral/temporal) half
221
Visual information from the _____ half of each visual field travels to the left side of the brain
right half
Visual information from the right half of each visual field travels to the left side of the brain
222
Visual information from the _____ half of each visual field travels to the right side of the brain
Left half
Visual information from the left half of each visual field travels to the right side of the brain
223
What is the ability to perceive sounds?
Hearing
224
What is an engineering mar- vel because its sensory receptors can transduce sound vibrations with amplitudes as small as the diameter of an atom of gold (0.3 nm) into electrical signals 1000 times faster than photoreceptors can respond to light?
Hearing
225
What organ also contains receptors for equilibrium, the sense that helps you maintain your balance and be aware of your orientation in space?
Ear
226
The transduction of sound vibrations by the ear’s sensory receptors into electrical signals is ______ times faster than the response to light by the eye’s photoreceptors
1000 times faster
227
The ear is divided into 3 regions, what are these?
External ear
Middle ear
Internal ear
228
The outer ear contains what?
Auricle (pinna)(earlobe)
External auditory canal (ear canal)
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
229
Contains the helix and lobul
Auricle (pinna)
230
What is the canal that is going into your ear?
External auditory canal
231
What is known as the panic membrane?
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
232
As sound waves pass through the external auditory meatus unto your panic membrane this causes vibration onto the eardrum and transmitted to your three bones, what are these 3 bones?
Melleus
Incus
Stapes
Meatus (ear canal)
233
What are transmitted from the eardrum through the 3 auditory ossicles to the oval window?
Sound vibrations
234
What extends from the middle ear into the nasopharynx to regulate air pressure in the middle ear?
The auditory tube
235
Also known as pharyngotympanic tube, eustachian tube ?
The auditory tube
236
What is found in the labyrinth?
Cochlea
Semicircular canals
labyrinth(inner ear)
237
What is mostly used for hearing within the labyrinth?
Cochlea
238
What is used for balance within the labyrinth?
Semicircular canals
239
What moves the hair cells of the spiral organ (organ of Corti) against the tectorial membrane. These cells generate nerve impulses in cochlear nerve fibers?
The basilar membrane vibrates.
240
What form the cochlear branch of the CN8?
The cochlear nerve fibers
241
The axons synapse with neurons in the cochled nuclei in the medulla oblongata. T or F
T
242
The impulses travel to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and end in the primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe. T or F
T
243
2 types of equilibrium?
Static
Dynamic
244
What maintenance of the body's position relative to the force of gravity?
Static
245
What maintenance of the body's position in response to sudden movements?
Dynamic
246
What are the organs that maintain equilibrium?
Vestibular Apparatus
247
What are calcium carbonate crystals?
Oliths
248
What consists of saccule and urticle?
Otolithic organs
249
What are the receptors for static equilibrium?
Macula
250
What causes the movement of the head causes gravity to move it down over hair cells?
Otolithic membrane
251
What are responsible for dynamic equilibrium?
Semicircular canals
252
What lie at right angles to each other which allows for rotational acceleration or deceleration?
Semicircular canals
253
An _______ in each canal contains the crista with a group of hair cells
Ampulla
