Short Answer Chp 1-3

Question 1

How is social psychology different from other fields of psychology?

Answer 1

• in contrast to clinical psychology, social psychology focuses not on disorders, but, rather, on the more typical ways in which individuals think, feel, behave, and interact
• personality psychology focuses on differences between individuals that remain relatively stable across a variety of situations; social psychology focuses on how social factors affect most individuals, regardless of their different personalities.
• cognitive and social psychologists share an interest in mental processes such as thinking, learning, remembering, and reasoning: but social psychologists focus on the relevance of these processes to social behaviour

Question 2

How is social psychology different from other social sciences, such as sociology?

Answer 2

• tends to focus on individuals, whereas sociology tends to focus on groups
• social psychology is less likely than sociology to study the relation between broad societal variables and people’s behaviours and is more likely to use experimentation.

Question 3

Describe how social psychological findings may be distinguished from common sense or traditional folk wisdom.

Answer 3

• many social psychological theories and findings appear to be like common sense
• one problem with common sense, however, is that it may offer conflicting explanations and provide no way to test which one is correct.
• another problem is that common sense is often over-simplified and therefore misleading

Question 4

List the major periods in the history of social psychology.

Answer 4

• The Birth and Infancy - 1880s to 1920s
• A Call to Action - 1930s - 1950s
• Confidence and Crisis - 1960s-Mid-1970s
• An Era of Pluralism - Mid-1970s-1990s

Question 5

Describe briefly the birth and infancy of social psychology. Who are considered the founders of social psychology? When did the field of social psychology become a distant field of psychology?

Answer 5

• early research by Triplett and Ringelmann established an enduring topic in social psychology: how the presence of others affects an individual’s performance.
• the first social psychology textbooks in 1908 and 1924 began to give the emerging field of social psychology its shape

Question 6

What was the major focus of social psychological research from the 1930s to the 1950s?

Answer 6

• began to flourish because the world needed an explanation for the violence of war and solutions to it.
• Sherif’s work laid the foundation for later studies of social influence, and the legacy of Kurt Lewin is still evident throughout much of social psychology

Question 7

Describe Kurt Lewin’s contributions to social psychology.

Answer 7

• fled the Nazi onslaught in Germany and immigrated to the US
  -concepts have had a lasting effect on the field
  -established some of the fundamental principles of social psychology:
  1. Behaviour is a function of the interaction between
  the person and the environment (interactionist
  perspective)
  2. Social psychological theories should be applied to
  important, practical issues. ex. how to persuade
  people at home during the war to conserve materials

Question 8

Explain why the 1960s to the mid-1970s was a period of confidence and crisis for social psychology.

Answer 8

• the Canadian government expanded its funding programs, attracting many social psychologists from the US and studied many investigations - a time of great productivity
• the crisis was that there was also intense debate about the ethics of research procedures, the validity of research results, and the generalizability of conclusions drawn from the research.

Question 9

How was the crisis for social psychology resolved in the mid-70s to the 1990s?

Answer 9

• the development of a pluralistic approach that recognized that because different topics require different kinds of investigations, a range of research techniques is needed beyond the laboratory experiment approach
• more rigorous ethical standards for research were instituted
• more stringent procedures to guard against bias were adopted
• more attention was paid to possible cross-cultural differences in behaviour and multicultural perspectives

Question 10

Describe how social psychology incorporates cognitive, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural perspectives of human behaviour in the new century.

Answer 10

• biological perspectives, including perspectives based on neuroscience, genetics, and evolutionary principles, are being applied to the study of social psychological issues such as gender differences, relationships, and aggression
• increasing numbers of social psychologists are evaluating the universal generality or cultural specificity of their theories and findings by examining similarities and differences across cultures as well as between racial and ethnic groups within cultures.

Question 11

In what ways are new technologies changing social psychological research?

Answer 11

• improved brain imaging techniques have contributed to ground breaking research
• virtual reality technology enables researchers to test questions that otherwise would be impractical, impossible, or unethical
• the internet has fostered communication and collaboration among researchers around the world, enabled researchers to study participants from diverse populations, and inspired researchers to investigate whether various social psychological phenomena are similar or different online vs offline

Question 12

Describe the steps in doing research in social psychology.

Answer 12

Asking Questions
Searching the Literature
Hypotheses and Theories
Basic and Applied Research

Question 13

Outline several ways for generating research ideas.

Answer 13

personal experiences and observations
events in the news
other research

Question 14

Distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory, and describe the connection between the two.

Answer 14

A hypothesis is a a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur and a theory is an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena. As hypotheses proliferate and data are collected to test the hypotheses, a more advanced step in the research process may take place: the proposal of a theory.

Question 15

Distinguish between applied research and basic research, and describe how basic research and applied research are connected.

Answer 15

Basic research seeks to understand our understanding of human behaviour and is often designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific theory. Applied research makes use of social psychology’s theories or methods to enlarge our understanding of naturally occurring events and to contribute to the solution of social problems. Some researchers switch back and forth between the two. Some studies test a theory and examine a relation-world phenomenon simultaneously. Lewin was a pioneer in both approaches.

Question 16

Define conceptual variables and operational definitions. How are they related? Give an example of a conceptual variable and its operational definition.

Answer 16

• conceptual variables are abstract, general variables that are often used when a researcher first develops it’s hypothesis.
• the specific way in which a conceptual variable is manipulated or measured is called the operational definition of the variable.
• Ex. a researcher might operationally define “conformity” in a particular study as the number of times a participant indicated agreement with the obviously wrong judgments made by a group of confederates

Question 17

Define construct validity. Why is it necessary to establish construct validity in research?

Answer 17

Construct validity is the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate.

Question 18

What is the purpose of descriptive research? Describe the methods used to conduct descriptive research.

Answer 18

• to record how frequently or typically people think, feel, or behave in particular ways
• observational research - researchers observe individuals systematically, often in natural settings
• qualitative research, researchers go beyond the numbers to better understand why a particular behaviour occurs
• archival research - researchers examine existing records and documents such as newspaper articles, diaries, and published crime statistics
• surveys involve asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours

Question 19

What is the purpose of correlational research? List the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research.

Answer 19

Correlational research examines the relationship between variables.
Advantages:
- it can study the associations of naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced - such as gender, race, ethnicity, and age.
- it can examine phenomena that would be difficult or unethical to create for research purposes such as love, hate, and abuse.
- it offers researchers a great deal of freedom in where variables are measured.
Disadvantage: CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION

Question 20

What is a correlation coefficient? How are the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables indicated in a correlation coefficient?

Answer 20

A statistic that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.
Can range from -1.0 to +1.0.
The larger the absolute value of the number, the stronger the association between the two variables, and thus the better either of the variables is as a predictor of the other.
A positive correlation coefficient indicates that as one variable increases, so does the other. A negative coefficient indicates that the two variables go in opposite directions: As one goes up, the other tends to go down.

Question 21

What does correlation is not causation mean?

Answer 21

A correlation cannot demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.
Instead of revealing a specific causal pathway from one variable, A, to another variable B, a correlation between variables A and B contains within it three possible causal effects: A could cause B; B could cause A; or a third variable, C, could cause both A and B.

Question 22

What is the purpose of experimental research? List the characteristics of an experiment.

Answer 22

The purpose of experimental research is to examine cause-and-effect relationships. They have two essential characteristics:

1. The researcher has control over the experimental. procedures, manipulating the variables of interest while ensuring uniformity elsewhere.
2. Participants in the study are randomly assigned to the different manipulations or “conditions” included in the experiment.

Question 23

Differentiate between random sampling and random assignment.

Answer 23

Random sampling is selecting participants for a study so that everyone from a population has an equal chance, whereas random assignment is assigning participants already in a study to the various conditions of the experiment so that each participant has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.
Random sampling enables researchers to collect data from samples that are representative of the broader population; important for being able to generalize the results to the broader population.
Random assignment equalizes the conditions of the experiment so that it is very unlikely that the conditions differ in terms of pre-existing differences among the participants; essential to determine that the independent variable(s) caused an effect on the dependent variable (s).

Question 24

Distinguish between independent variables and dependent variables in experimental research.

Answer 24

An independent variable is a factor that experimenters MANIPULATE to see if it affects the dependable variable.
A dependent is a factor that experimenters MEASURE those if it is affected by the independent variable. For example - researchers are interested in seeing it the dependent variable would depend on, or be influenced by the manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 25

Define subject variable, and give an example.

Answer 25

A variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the subjects, or participants, in the experiment. They cannot be manipulated and randomly assigned, so they are not true independent variables, nor are they influenced by the independent variables, so they are not dependent variables. Ex. cultural background

Question 26

Define internal validity and external validity.

Answer 26

Internal validity is the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables.

External validity is the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations.

Question 27

What is a meta-analysis?

Answer 27

A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.

Question 28

Why are deception and confederates used in social psychological experiments?

Answer 28

They strength experimental realism.

It allows the experimenter to manufacture situations in the laboratory that would be difficult to observe in a natural setting: to study potentially harmful behaviours, such as aggression, in a regulated, safe manner; and to assess people’s spontaneous reactions rather than socially acceptable presentations.

To assess people’s spontaneous reactions rather than socially acceptable presentations.

Question 29

Why is ethics an important issue in social psychological research?

Answer 29

Ethical issues are particularly important in social psychology because of the use of deception in some research.

Question 30

Describe the measures that researchers in social psychology must take to protect the welfare of human participants in their research.

Answer 30

They must obtain informed consent from participants. They also should practice debriefing that discloses if deception was used after data was collected.

Question 31

What are the competing arguments for and against science as value-free?

Answer 31

Moral values set standards for and impose limits on the conduct of research.

There are various views on the relation between values and science. Few believe that there can be a completely value-free science, but some advocate trying to minimize the influence of values on science, whereas others argue that values should be recognized and encouraged as an important factor in science.

Question 32

How are high self-monitors different from low self-monitors? Are high monitors necessarily more adaptive than low monitors?

Answer 32

High self-monitors modify their behaviour, as appropriate, from one situation to the next.

Low self-monitors express themselves in a more consistent manner, exhibiting at all times what they see as their true self.

Neither are necessarily more adaptive. It is safe to conclude that neither high nor low self monitoring is necessarily undesirable, unless carried to the extreme.

Question 33

Define self-concept.

Answer 33

The self-concept is the sum total of a person’s beliefs about his or her own attributes. It is the cognitive component of the self.

Question 34

Describe the self-perception theory as proposed by Bem. How can the self-perception theory be used to understand emotion, behaviour, and motivation?

Answer 34

People infer what they think or how they feel by observing their own behaviour and the situation in which that behaviour takes place.

Based on self-perception theory, the facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions can produce, not just reflect, an emotion state (smiling can cause us to feel happy).

Studies of the over justification effect show that people sometimes lose interest in activities for which they are rewarded.

If a reward is seen as a “bonus” for superior performance, then it can enhance intrinsic motivation by providing positive feedback.

Question 35

Identify four ways that people use to enhance their self-esteem (i.e., self-enhancement).

Answer 35

1. self-serving cognitions: taking credit for success and denying the blame for failure
2. self-handicapping: in order to excuse anticipated failure
3. basking in reflected glory: boosts their self-esteem through associations with successful others
4. downward social comparisons to others who are less well off.

Question 36

Define self-presentation. Compare and contrast the two goals of self-presentation: strategic self-presentation and self-verification.

Answer 36

Self-presentation is the process by which we try to shape what others think of us and even what we think of ourselves.

Strategic self-presentation: through which we try to shape others’ impressions in order to be liked or seen as competent

Self-verification: through which we try to get others to perceive us as we perceive ourselves

Question 37

Define self-esteem. Is one’s self-esteem stable or unstable throughout life?

Answer 37

Self-esteem is an affective component of the self, consisting of a person’s positive and negative self-evaluations. As a general rule, self-esteem is a trait that is stable from childhood through old age. Yet for some people in particular, self-esteem seems to fluctuate up and down in response to daily experiences - which makes them highly responsive to praise and overly sensitive to criticism.

Question 38

Why do people need self-esteem? How does self-esteem influence one’s thought, feelings, and behaviour?

Answer 38

People are inherently social animals and the desire for self-esteem is driven by this more primitive need to connect with others and gain their approval.

Humans are biologically programmed for self-preservation. Yet we are conscious of - and terrified by - the inevitability of our own death. WE cope with they fear by constructing and accepting cultural worldviews that provide meaning and purpose and a buffer against anxiety.

Question 39

What are the three concepts of the self?

Answer 39

1) self-concept: the cognitive component of self.
2) self-esteem: the affective component of self.
3) self-presentation: the behavioural component of self

Question 40

When does self-recognition begin in humans?

Answer 40

most human infants begin to recognize themselves in the mirror between 18 and 24 months of age

Question 41

What role does self-recognition play in the development of self-concept? What role do others play?

Answer 41

Recognizing oneself as a distinct entity is a necessary first step in the evolution and development of a self-concept.

The second step involves social factors:

• Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1902) introduced the term looking-glass self to suggest that other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves.
• Expanding on this idea, George Herbert Mead (1934) added that we often come to know ourselves by imagining what significant others think of us and then incorporating these perceptions into our self- concepts.
• More recently, Susan Andersen and Serena Chen (2002) theorized that the self is “relational”—that we draw our sense of who we are from our past and current relation- ships with the significant others in our lives. – What we think of ourselves often does not match what specific others actually think of us

Question 42

Distinguish between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Identify the factors that can influence the effect of extrinsic factors on intrinsic motivation.

Answer 42

Intrinsic motivation originates in factors within a person.

Extrinsic motivation originates in factors outside of a person.

Individual differences in motivational orientation and how the reward is perceived.

Question 43

Describe the social comparison theory as proposed by Festinger. When do people engage in social comparison, and with whom do they compare themselves?

Answer 43

The social comparison theory as proposed by Festinger argued that when people are uncertain of their abilities or opinions, that is when objective information is not available, they evaluate themselves through comparisons with others.

People engage in social comparisons in states of uncertainty, when more objective means of self-evaluation are not available.

We look to others who are similar to us in relevant ways.

Question 44

Describe the two-factor theory of emotion as proposed by Schachter. Under what conditions does the social context not influence one’s interpretation of unclear emotional states?

Answer 44

The two-factor theory of emotion states that experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

For others to influence your emotion, your level of physiological arousal cannot be too intense, or else it will be experiences as averse, regardless of the situation.

Also, other people must be present as a possible explanation for arousal before its onset. Once people are aroused, they turn for an explanation to events that preceded the change in tier physiological states.

Question 45

Distinguish between two cultural orientations: individualism and collectivism. Give examples of countries in which each of these cultural orientations predominates.

Answer 45

virtues independence, autonomy, and self-reliance. Personal goals take priority over group allegiances. Western

virtues interdependence, cooperation and social harmony. Person is motivated to be part of a group, not different, better, or worse. East. (Japan, pakistan, etc).

Question 46

In what ways can individualistic and collectivistic cultural orientation influence one’s self-concept?

Answer 46

Individualism and collectivism are so ingrained in a culture that they mold our self conceptions and identities.
Individualistic: independent view of self, that the self is an entity that is distinct, autonomous, self-contained, and endowed with unique dispositions. “the only person you can count on is yourself” “I enjoy being unique and different from others”. Defined by independence “I am shy”. Strive for personal achievement, overestimate own contributions to team effort, etc. Sees self as less similar to others.
a) Collectivist: interdependent view of self, self is part of a larger social network that includes one’s family, co-workers, and others with whom one is socially connected. “I’m partly to blame if one of my family members or co-workers fails” “my happiness depends on the happiness of those around me”. Defined by group participation “I am a college student”. Satisfaction from status of valued group. more self-critical and less self-enhancing than individualistic.

Question 47

Distinguish between the actual self, the ought self, and the ideal self. How are these concepts used in the self-discrepancy theory to account for one’s self-esteem level and any changes in self-esteem?

Answer 47

Actual self: the self you are. Self-concept.
ought self: the self you think you ought to be, that would enable you to meet your sense of duty, obligation, and responsibility
ideal self: the person you would like to be. embodies hopes, wishes, and dreams.

Question 48

Briefly describe the self-awareness theory. What situations tend to evoke self-awareness? How do people cope when they are aware of self-discrepancies?

Answer 48

the theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour. Self-awareness = unhappy

Self-awareness theory suggests two ways of coping:

1) Shape up, by behaving in ways that reduce our self-discrepancies, or
2) Ship out, by withdrawing from self-awareness (escapism).

Question 49

Distinguish between private self-consciousness and public self-consciousness.

Answer 49

private self-consciousness: a personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own innerstates (tendency to introspect about inner thoughts and feelings).
Reduced discrepancy relative to your own standards

public self-consciousness: a personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others. Tendency to focus on our outer public image. Match self to public.

Question 50

What are the limits to trying to control or change one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours through self-regulation?

Answer 50

a) Self-control is like working a muscle, once used, it becomes fatigues and loses strength, making it more difficult to re-exert self-control
b) All self-control efforts draw from a single common reservoir.
c) After you exert self-control in one task, their capacity for self0regulation is weakened.
d) Exerting self-control is physically taxing, it consumes glucose.

Question 51

Identify four ways that people use to enhance their self-esteem (i.e., self-enhancement).

Answer 51

1) self-serving cognition: i) Those who score high take credit themselves, those who score low blame instructors
ii) Individuals believe that they have a higher chance of being successful, less likely to get divorced or fired, and more likely to bear a gifted child.
iii) Overestimating the extent to which you can influence personal outcomes that are not infact within their power to control.

2) Self-handicapping: Behaviour designed to sabotage one’s own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure
3) Basking in the glory of others: to increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful
4) Downward social comparison: the defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are.

Question 52

What is the relationship between self-enhancement, mental health, and perception of reality?

Answer 52

Recent research suggests that certain positive illusions may foster high self-esteem and mental health.

An alternative view is that such illusions promote self- defeating behaviour patterns and that people with inflated views of themselves are liked less by others.

Question 53

Social psychology

a) shows that common sense is always accurate.
b) shows that common sense is always inaccurate.
c) is the scientific pursuit of common sense.
d) tests the validity of and seeks to provide explanations for many common sense ideas about social behaviours.

Answer 53

D

Question 54

For social psychology, the 1960s and early 1970s was a period of

a) confidence and crisis
b) stability and maturity
c) pluralism and development.
d) infancy and maturation

Answer 54

A

Question 55

Two recent trends in social psychology have been a growing interest in

a) cross-cultural perspectives and social cognition.
b) social motivation research and attitude research.
c) sociocultural perspective and social neuroscience.
d) attitude research and conformity research.

Answer 55

C

Question 56

Responses in self-reported surveys can be inaccurate because

a) the questions may be interpreted differently across cultures or contexts.
b) respondents may not remember accurately.
c) respondents may not answer questions honestly.
d) all of the above

Answer 56

D

Question 57

If your research question is “Does role modelling increase helping behaviour in fifth grade school children?”, which of the following is the independent variable?

a) role modelling
b) helping behaviour
c) fifth grade
d) school children

Answer 57

A

Question 58

The affective component of the self is

a) self-concept
b) self-presentation
c) self-esteem
d) self-perception

Answer 58

C

Question 59

In the social comparison theory as proposed by Festinger in 1954,

a) people are motivated to evaluate their opinions, feelings, and abilities.
b) people will evaluate themselves in comparison with others, especially in the absence of objective bases of evaluation.
c) people always compare themselves with other people whom they admire.
d) both a. and b. are accurate

Answer 59

D

Question 60

In contrast to individuals from Western cultures, those from collectivist cultures define themselves primarily in terms of

a) personal abilities.
b) personal values.
c) relationships with people, groups, and institutions.
d) education and career goals.

Answer 60

C

Question 61

Discuss 3 examples of evidence from research that point to our social nature.

Answer 61

1. Whether hurting from a physical pain, or from an emotional one, the same areas of the brain are activated. Therefore, social loss, such as a romantic breakup, may actually be experienced a physical pain.
2. People who have experiences with other cultures demonstrate more creative tendencies. This suggests that multicultural experiences help to keep us more open-minded and enable us to be more flexible thinkers.
3. Having close friends is associated with health benefits. Researchers have found that children and teens with fewer friends are more likely to experience depression and be sick more often than their more popular peers.

Question 62

To learn about human behaviour, which of the following does social psychology rely on most heavily?

a) critical analysis to develop general principles that describe human behaviour.
b) the assumption that only social factors influence human behaviour.
c) the scientific method to learn about human behaviour.
d) cultural analysis to learn about human behaviour.

Answer 62

C

Question 63

What do social psychologists use descriptive research to reveal?

a) general patterns and trends in the variables of interest.
b) cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent variables.
c) associations between two or more variables of interest.
d) the strength of an observed effect.

Answer 63

A

Question 64

In order to conduct an experiment, which of the following must researchers have?

a) the ability to observe behaviour unnoticed
b) the ability to systematically measure two variables
c) the ability to manipulate an independent variable
d) a laboratory environment

Answer 64

C

Question 65

What does Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion propose about emotional experience?

a) That it is independent of social comparison processes
b) That it requires a combination of positive and negative physiological arousal
c) That it is independent of physiological arousal
d) That it is based on physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal

Answer 65

D

Question 66

Describe how social comparison theory and self-perception theory differ in their explanation for the development of the self.

Answer 66

Social comparison theory suggests that individuals assess their own strengths, weaknesses, and capabilities in comparison to others. They develop their sense of self based on what they believe others would like to see in them.

In contrast, self-perception theory suggests that individuals use self-observation to gain further understanding and awareness of themselves. They develop their sense of self based on personal reflection.

Question 67

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using self-report measures and of using observational measures in social psychological research.

Answer 67

One advantage of using self-report measures in social psychological research is that the collection of quantitative data allows for more opportunities for statistical information. A second advantage is that the use of self-report measures can be very time efficient. A disadvantage of using a self-report measure is that it can distort research findings as people want to present their best selves. Another disadvantage to this approach is that it does not allow researchers to observe and understand the participant.

An advantage of using observational measures in social psychological research is that researchers are able to observe the actions and feelings of participants. This method also gives researchers the opportunity to see the participants act like their normal selves rather than their best selves. A disadvantage of observational research is that it can be quite time-consuming. A second disadvantage is that like using self-report measures, individuals can still distort research by presenting their best selves under observation.

Question 68

What social benefits do multicultural experiences create?

Answer 68

keep us more open-minded and enable us to be more flexible thinkers

Question 69

Erin Strahan and colleagues (2008)

Answer 69

• Explored the impact of media images on body satisfaction ratings by female undergraduate students
• wanted to see if they could change whether a participant was feeling bad or good about her body by manipulating how aware she was of the cultural norms that we generally endorse in North America
• asked half of the women in the study to watch commercials with very thin, very attractive models, while others watched more neutral images
• after a break, were asked to rate themselves on self-worth and self-esteem scales
• consistent with previous research, those who viewed the thin models reported being less satisfied with their bodies

Question 70

What are the four main historical periods of social psychology?

Answer 70

1. The Birth and Infancy of Social Psychology 1880s to 1920s.
2. A Call to Action 1930s to 1950s
3. Confidence and Crisis in the 1960s to mid-1970s
4. An Era of Pluralism the 1970s to 1990s

Question 71

What does “treeing” mean?

Answer 71

going from article to article tracking down information about the research question on an electronic database

Question 72

Describe the differences between basic research and applied research?

Answer 72

• Basic research seeks to increase our understanding of human behaviour and is often designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific theory.
• Applied research makes use of social psychology’s theories or methods to enlarge our understanding of naturally occurring events and to contribute to the solution of social problems.

Question 73

What are the three report strategies psychologists use for self-reports to minimize the inaccuracy of self-reports?

Answer 73

1) interval contingent: report their experience at regular intervals, usually one per day
2) signal-contingent: report their experiences as soon as possible after receiving a signal
3) event-contingent: report on a designated set of events after they have occurred.

Question 74

What are the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research?

Answer 74

Advantages:

1. can study the associations of naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced - such as gender, race, ethnicity, and age.
2. can examine phenomena that would be difficult or unethical to create for research purposes, such as love, hate, and abuse.
3. it offers researchers a great deal of freedom in where variables are measured.

Disadvantage: *major*
1. correlation DOES NOT equal causation

Question 75

What does a positive correlation look like on a graph?

Answer 75

line goes upwards and to the right - dots gather around the line

Question 76

What does a negative correlation look like on a graph?

Answer 76

line goes upwards and to the left - dots gather around the line

Question 77

What does no correlation look like on a graph?

Answer 77

no line - random dots everywhere

Question 78

Describe the differences and advantages of using correlational research and experimental research.

Answer 78

Correlational Research:

1. Involves measuring variables and the degree of association between them.
2. Biggest advantage is it enables researchers to study naturally occurring variables, including variables that would be difficult or unethical to manipulate.

Experimental Research:

1. Random assignment to conditions and control over the events that occur; determining the effects of manipulations of the independent variable(s) on change in the dependent variable(s)
2. Biggest advantage is that it enables researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships

Question 79

Describe the differences and advantages of using random sampling vs. random assignment.

Answer 79

Random sampling:

1. Involves selecting participants to be in the study so everyone from a population has an equal chance of being a participant in the study.
2. Biggest advantage is that it enables researchers to collect data from samples that are representatives of the broader population; important for being able to generalize the results to the broader population.

Random assignment:

1. Involves assigning participants (who are already in the study) to the various conditions of the experiment so that each participant has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.
2. Biggest advantage of using this procedure is that it equalizes the conditions of the experiment so that it is very unlikely that the conditions differ in terms of preexisting differences among the participants; essential to determine that the independent variable(s) caused an effect on the dependent variable(s).

Question 80

Who wrote “The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Became Who we Are” (2002)

Answer 80

Joseph Ledoux - neuroscientist

Question 81

who introduced the term “looking-glass self” and what did it mean?

Answer 81

Charles Cooley (1902) 
the term suggested that other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves.

Question 82

Who expanded the self as a social concept theory to be more relational?

Answer 82

Susan Andersen and Serena Chen (2002)
-theorized that the self is “relational” - that we draw our sense of who we are from our past and current relationships with the significant others in our lives.

Question 83

Who proposed self-perception theory and during what year?

Answer 83

Darly Bem (1972)