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George Biology > Respiration chp 18 > Flashcards

Respiration chp 18 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the first stage of respiration

A
  • Glycolysis
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2
Q

at what stage does aerobic and anaerboic respiration split off in the stages of respiration

A
  • glycolysis
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3
Q

what is the name of all the stages (in order) of aerobic respiration

A
  • glycolysis
  • link reaction
  • krebs cycle
  • oxadative phosphorylation
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4
Q

what is the name of all stages (in order) of anaerobic respiration

A
  • glycosis
  • fermentation
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5
Q

where does glycolysis occur within the cell

A
  • occurs in the cytoplasm
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6
Q

is glycolysis an aerobic or anaerobic process, why is this

A
  • anerobic process as does not require oxygen
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7
Q

what is the products of glycolysis

A
  • 2 pyruvate molecules (3 carbon molecules)
  • 2 ATP
  • 2NADH
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8
Q

what are the main steps of glycolysis

A
  • phosphorylation forms hexosebisphosphate
  • lysis forms triosephosphate
  • phosphorylation to form triosebisphosphate
  • dehydrogenation and formation of ATP to produce pyruvate
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9
Q

what occurs in the phosphorylation (1st) stage of glycolysis

A
  • requires 2 molecules of ATP
  • 2 phosphates released from ATP molecules are attached to glucose molecule
  • ^forms hexose bisphosphate
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10
Q

what occurs in the lysis (2nd) stage of glycolysis

A

destabilises the molecule of hexose bisphosphate, causing it to split into 2, triose phosphate molecules

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11
Q

what occurs in the 2nd phosphorylation (3rd) stage of glycolysis

A
  • phosphate group added to each triose phosphate,
  • ^forms 2 triose bisphosphate molecules
  • inorganic phosphate groups come from cytoplasm (free floating)
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12
Q

what occurs in the dehydrogenation and ATP formation (final) stage of glycolysis

A
  • 2 triose bisphosphate molecules oxidised (via removal of hydrogen) forming 2 pyruvate molecules
  • NAD coenzymes accept removed hydrogens (they are reduced to form 2 NADH molecules)
  • 4 ATP molecules produced using phosphates from 2 triose bisphosphate
    ^ however net gain of 2 ATP
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13
Q

what is meant by substrate level phosphorylation

A
  • formation of ATP without use of electron transport chain
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14
Q

where does substrate level phosphorylation occur in glycolysis

A
  • the final stage
  • ^dehydrogenation and ATP formation
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15
Q

what is the overall net ATP yield from glycolysis

A
  • 2 molecules used at start, 4 molecules produced
  • net yield = 2 ATP molecules
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16
Q

where does aerobic respiration take place within the cell (apart fromn glycolysis)

A
  • inside the mitochondria
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17
Q

what is the function of the inner mitochondrial membrane

A
  • contains electron transport chains and ATP synthase

refers to cristae

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18
Q

what is the function of the outer mitochondrial membrane

A
  • compartmentalisation to maintain ideal conditions
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19
Q

what is the function of the cristae in the mitochondria

A
  • projections of inner membrane
  • increase surface area available for oxidative phosphorylation
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20
Q

what is the function of the matrix in the mitochondria

A
  • contains enzymes for the Krebs cycle and link reaction
  • contains mitochondrial DNA
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21
Q

what is the function of the intermembrane space found within mitochondria

A
  • protons pumped into this by electron transport chain
  • space small so concentration builds up (conc gradient)
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22
Q

what is the more descriptive name for the link reaction

A
  • oxidative decarboxylation
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23
Q

how does pyruvate enter the mitochondrial matrix

A
  • active transport via carrier proteins
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24
Q

what is meant by oxidative decarboxylation

A

removal of carbon and hydrogen

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25
Q

what happens to the the hydrogen atoms that are removed from pyruvate in the link reaction

A
  • accepted by NAD to form NADH (reduced NAD)
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26
Q

what is the product of the link reaction

A
  • acetyl groups (2 carbons)
  • ^bind to coenzyme A forming acetylcoenzyme A
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27
Q

where does the krebs cycle occur within the cell

A
  • takes place in mitochondrial matrix
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28
Q

where does link reaction take place within cell

A
  • mitochondrial matrix
29
Q

Draw the krebs cycle

A
30
Q

what main processes occur in the krebs cycle

A
  • acetyl CoA delivers acetyl to Krebs cycle (Co A recycled in links)
  • acetyl groups (2 C) combine with oxaloacetate (4 C) to form citrate (6 C)
  • citrate undergoes decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
    ^5 carbon compound formed
  • 5C compound undergoes decarboxylation and dehydrogenation
  • ^oxaloacetate regenerated
31
Q

whats the products of the Krebs cycle

A
  • 3 reduced NAD (NADH)
  • ATP
  • FADH2
  • 2 CO2 molecules
32
Q

what are NAD and FAD examples of

A
  • coenzymes that accept electrons and protons
33
Q

what are the differences between NAD and FAD

A
  • NAD is found in all stages of cellular respiration, FAD only found in Krebs cycle
  • NAD accepts 1 hydrogen, FAD accepts 2
34
Q

how are Red. NAD and FAD used in oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • deliver protons/H+ and electrons to the Cristae of the mitochondria
35
Q

how are electrons utilised in oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • used to generate energy via travelling along an electron transport chain for active transport of hydrogen ions across cristae
  • combine with hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water
36
Q

Why are hydrogen ions actively pumped across the mitochondiral cristae into the intermembrane space

A
  • to generate a high concentration gradient across the crista so that hydrogen ions move through ATP synthase to produce ATP
37
Q

How is oxygen used in the oxadative phosphorylation

A
  • oxygen accepts hydrogens and electrons to form water molecules
  • ^this maintains the concentration gradient of hydrogen so that diffusion keeps occuring through ATP synthase
  • ^also acts to reduce acidity that can come about due to high levels of H+ ions (high acidity can denature enzymes involved in electron transport chain and ATP synthase)
38
Q

Draw oxadative phosphorylation

A
39
Q

draw glycolysis, links reaction and krebs cycke from aerobic respiration

A
40
Q

what is the net gain of ATP in aerobic respiration

net gain in each stage

A
  • glycolysis: 2 ATP in, 4 ATP out = net gain 2
  • link reaction: 0 in, 0 made = 0 net
  • Krebs cycle: 0 in, 2 made = net gain 2
  • oxadative phosphorylation: 0 in, 34 made = 34 net gain

40-2=38

41
Q

what are obligate anaerobes

A
  • cannot survive in presence of oxygen
42
Q

what are facultative anaerobes

A
  • synthesise ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but can switch to anaerobic respiration in absence of oxygen
43
Q

what are obligate aerobes

A
  • can only synthesise ATP in presence of oxygen (mammals)
44
Q

what is fermentation

A
  • form of anaerobic respiration
  • process by which complex organic compounds are broken down without use of oxygen or involvement of electron transport chains
45
Q

what can do alcoholic fermentation

A
  • yeast and some plant root cells
46
Q

what are the end products of alcoholic fermentation

A
  • ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide
47
Q

what are the products of the lactate fermentation

A
  • lactate
  • carried out In animal cells
48
Q

why does aerobic respiration stop when there is the absence of oxygen

A
  • no oxygen to act as the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain, the flow of electron stops
  • synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis stops
  • as flow of electrons has stopped, red. NAD & red. FAD are no longer oxidised as no where for electrons to go
  • FAD and NAD not regenerated so decarboxylation and oxidation cannot occur in links and Krebs, this means they stop as no coenzymes available
  • glycolysis would stop if not for fermentation
49
Q

draw lactate fermentation in mammals

A
50
Q

what enzyme catalyses lactate fermentation

A

lactate dehydrogenase

51
Q

why cannot lactate fermentation occur indefinitely

A
  • amount of ATP made would not sustain vital processes in the long run
  • accumulation of lactic acid causes fall in pH leading to proteins denaturing.
    ^respiratory enzymes and muscle filament will cease to function at low pH
52
Q

draw alcoholic fermentation

A
53
Q

which type of fermentation is reversible and which one is not

A
  • alcoholic fermentation is not reversible
  • lactate fermentation is reversible
54
Q

what enzyme catalyses alcoholic fermentation

A

pyruvate converted to ethanal first catalysed by pyruvate decarboxylase

55
Q

where does lactic acid go to be dealt with in the body

A

removed from muscles and taken to liver in bloodstream and converted into glucose but oxygen is needed to do so

56
Q

explain the steps of alcoholic fermentation

A
  • pyruvate is first converted to ethanal, catalysed by pyruvate decarboxylase
  • ethanal then accept hydrogen from red. NAD, becoming ethanol
  • NAD regenerated so glycolysis can continue
57
Q

explain the steps of lactate fermentation

A
  • pyruvate acts as hydrogen acceptor taking hydrogen from red. NAD, catalysed by enzyme lactate dehydrogenase
  • pyruvate converted into lactate (lactic acid) which can produce glucose and NAD is regenerated
    ^can be used to maintain glycolysis
58
Q

which type of fermentation can occur indefinitely

A
  • alcoholic fermentation can occur indefinitely in the absence of oxygen
59
Q

what are some ways that some animals have evolved to low oxygen environments

A
  • higher concentrations of haemoglobin and myoglobin, particularly in muscles
    ^maximises oxygen stores, delays onset of anaerobic respiration
  • higher tolerance to lactic acid
  • greater tolerance of high CO2 levels
  • ^very effective buffering systems to stop pH fall
  • bradycardia
60
Q

what are respiratory substrates

A

organic molecules that are broken down to release energy for the synthesis of ATP

61
Q

what are some examples of respiratory substrates apart from glucose

A
  • triglycerides
  • glycerol
  • lipids
  • proteins
62
Q

how can triglycerides act as respiratory substrates

A
  • hydrolyses to fatty acids, which enter Krebs cycle via acetyl CoA and glycerol
  • can produce up to 50 acetyl CoA molecules, can result in up to 500 ATP molecules
63
Q

How can glycerol act as respiratory substrates

A
  • first converted to pyruvate before oxidative decarboxylation producing acetyl group, then forms acetyl CoA
64
Q

how can proteins act as respiratory substrates

A
  • first have to be hydrolysed to amino acids, then deaminated to pyruvate which enters links
65
Q

what is the equation to find the respiratory quotient

A
66
Q

what equipment can be used to measure respiratory quotient

A

respirometer

67
Q

what are the respiratory quotient values of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids

A
  • carbohydrates = 1.0
  • protein = 0.9
  • lipids = 0.7
68
Q

at what point of respiratory quotient value does anaerobic respiration start

A
  • if the RQ value increases above 1.0 anaerobic respiration begins
69
Q

what are some issues with low carb diets

A
  • can lead to breakdown of lean muscle
  • liver and kidneys have to remove nitrogenous waste
  • if body produces lots of ketones, can lead to ketosis, which can lead to ketoacidosis, pH level in body drops to dangerous levels

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