Respiration Flashcards
In respiration, what is pulmonary ventilation?
Getting air from outside the body (the environment) into our body
In respiration, what is conditioning of the air?
Warming, cleaning and moistening the air (don’t want pollutants)
In respiration, what is external respiration?
Gas exchange between blood and lungs, moving oxygen from lungs to bloodstream and carbon dioxide out
In respiration, respiratory gasses must be _____________ from the _______ to the tissues.
Transported
Lungs
How long can the body survive without oxygen?
A few minutes
In respiration, what is internal respiration?
Gas exchange from blood to cells and vice versa
In respiration, what is cellular respiration?
The process by which cells convert nutrients, particularly glucose, into energy in the form of ATP. This is essential for powering cellular activities.
How do the lungs influence sound?
They play a role in sound production
How do the lungs influence smell? How is this evolutionary?
They are involved in the smelling process through inhaling scents which is an evolutionary trait that allows us to identify the smell of others and of gone off food
How do the body condition the air?
The body cleans, moistens and warms up air to protect us from pollutants
What respiratory organs and body features do we have in our head and neck? (6)
Nostril
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
What body part is under the larynx and goes to our lungs?
Trachea
What are the two branches at the end of the trachea?
Right main primary bronchus
Left main primary bronchus
What are the branches that come off of the bronchus?
Bronchi
What is the carina of the trachea?
The place in the trachea where it branches into the bronchus’
Where does the parietal pleura (and visceral pleura) cover?
The surface of the lungs themselves
Where does the diaphragm sit?
Under the lungs
Where are the alveoli located?
At the end of the bronchioles (smallest branch in the lung)
What is in the upper respiratory tract? (8)
Nasal cavities
Oral cavities
Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Trachea
What is the primary entrance of air into the body?
The nose
What is the inside of the nose lined with? Why?
Tiny hairs called cilia and mucus to trap dust, pollen and other particles to clean the air.
What does the nasal cavity do to the air?
It adjusts the temperature of the air. If it is too cold the blood vessels warm it up before it reaches the lungs.
What is the secondary entrance of air into the body?
The mouth or oral cavity
What do the nasal conchae do?
They are ridged which causes turbulance. This bounces the air into the cillia to clean it. The cillia can then wave and beat mucus with the dust etc to the back of the throat.
Once the cillia has moved mucus to the back of the throat, what happens?
It is swallowed or sneezed out, to dispose of it
Where are the olfactory cells located?
In the olfactory epithelium, a membrane in the upper part of the nasal cavity
After the nasal or oral cavity, where does air go?
The pharynx
What is the pharynx?
A muscular hallway shared with the digestive system. Where food and air meet before going separate ways.
Which of the pharynx’s gets the air from the nasal cavities?
The nasopharynx
Which is the cavity that is connected to the mouth and pharynx?
the oropharynx
what is the purpose of the hard palette? (2) where is it located?(1)
it is to separate the oral and nasal cavity and aids swallowing and speaking
is located in the back of the oral cavity
What other palate is in the oral cavity? What does it do?
the soft palate
it blocks food and other substances from entering the nasal cavity when swallowing
What is at the end of the hard and soft palate?
the uvula (Dangly bit) which also separates the oral and nasal cavities
what are the two sinuses in the upper respiratory tract?
sphenoidal sinus
frontal sinus
what is the 3 purposes of the sinuses in the upper respiratory tract?
to lighten the bone structure of the head
and mucus
and resonate sound and improve quality of voice
What is the purpose of tonsils?
the tonsils are part of immune response by helping to filter out germs
What does the pharyngtmypanic/Eustachian tube connect?
the middle ear to the back of the throat, specifically the nasopharynx
What role does the pharyngotympanic/Eustachian tube play a crucial role in?
balance and ensuring proper ear function
One of the primary functions of the _________________ tube is to equalize the air pressure on both sides of the _________.
eustachian
eardrum
What should the pressure in the middle ear be the same as?
the air pressure outside the body
What does your Eustachian tube do when you experience a rapid change in altitude? what does this help?
it opens to allow air to flow in or our the middle ear
It helps balance the pressure and prevents the eardrum from stretching or becoming painful
The Eustachian tube also helps ______ any _______ or fluid that may accumulate in the __________ ____.
drain
mucus
middle ear
what actions we perform open the Eustachian tube? What does this help?
swallowing, yawning or chewing
This helps clear any excess fluid and keep the middle ear clean and dry
Under normal circumstances is the Eustachian tube open or closed?
closed
How does the eustachian tube protect us?
it acts as a barrier, preventing pathogens like bacteria and viruses from travelling from the throat to the middle ear
If the Eustachian tube is blocked or doesn’t function properly, what can this lead to? why?
ear infections (otitis media) because fluid can accumulate in the middle ear, providing a breeding ground for infections
What is the role of the pharynx?
it makes sure air continues to the lungs and food and drink goes to the oesophagus
Where does air pass down after the laryngopharynx?
The larynx
where are vocal chords located?
larynx
How does the larynx work for sound production?
they vibrate as air passes through them
What goes over the trachea when you swallow? why?
the epiglottis
to make sure food doesn’t go down the wrong way
When does the journey of the air through the upper respiratory tract end?
When it reaches the trachea (windpipe) which then guides it down to the lungs
at what rate do cilia beat?
at a rate of about 10 to 20 beats per second
What is the respiratory mucosa?
a specialised lining found throughout much of the respiratory tract
The respiratory mucosa is primarily composed of what?
Ciliated (has cilia), Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
what does pseudostratified mean?
or being an epithelium consisting of closely packed cells which appear to be arranged in layers but all of which are in fact attached to the basement membrane
What is an epithelium?
a thin layer of tissue that covers organs, glands and other body structures
Where are goblet cells located and what is their purpose?
interspersed within the epithelium and are responsible for secreting mucus
What does the mucus produced from the goblet cells do?
traps dust, pathogens and other particles, preventing them from entering the lungs
How is the mucus cleared from the body?
the cilia on the epithelial cells beat in a coordinated manner to move mucus and trapped particles upwards towards the throat, where they can be swallowed or expelled
The respiratory mucosa lines most of the respiratory tract, including the ______ cavity, trachea, and ________
nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi
what is and Where is the hyoid bone?
is small, U-shaped bone located in the neck, just above the larynx (voice box) and below the mandible (jawbone).
Does the hyoid bone connect directly to any other bone?
no
how is the hyoid bone anchored?
it’s anchored in place by a network of muscles and ligaments
What does the hyoid bone support? how?
the tongue
muscles that control the movement of the tongue and floor of the mouth attach to it, enabling functions like speaking, swallowing, and breathing.
What happens to the hyoid bone during swallowing? what does this do?
the hyoid bone moves upward and forward,
helping to open the oesophagus and guiding food into the digestive tract while preventing it from entering the airway.
What role does the hyoid bone play in vocalisation?
It supports the muscles that control the larynx, or voice box, which is essential for producing sound and speech.
What are the arytenoid cartilages?
a pair of small, pyramid-shaped structures located in the larynx
What doe the arytenoid cartilages do?
They play a crucial role in vocalization and breathing. By allowing the vocal cords to be tensed, relaxed, or approximated, they enable the production of sound.
describe the structure of the arytenoid cartilages?
Each arytenoid cartilage has a base, an apex, and three surfaces.
What do the arytenoid cartilages articulate with? forming what?
he cricoid cartilage, forming the cricoarytenoid joints.
What do the arytenoid cartilage serve as attachment points for?
several muscles and ligaments, including the vocal cords and the intrinsic muscles of the larynx.
Does the trachea have to stay open?
yes
Why are the rings of cartilage in the trachea incomplete?
they are c shaped and joined together by muscle. If it was solid, it wouldn’t allow you to swallow big gulps of food which are travelling down the oesophagus.
Also, you need to modulate the space to increase force for things like coughing
what is bronchi the plural of?
bronchus
What do bronchi have to help them stay open?
cartilage bands
What does the diaphragm separate?
the thoracic cavity from the rest of the abdominal cavity
at rest, what shape is the diaphragm?
dome shaped
when contracted, what happens to the diaphragm?
it pulls down, causes the thoracic cavity to expand and draws air into the lungs
As well as the diaphragm, what is the thoracic cavity made up of?
the chest wall with rib cage and intercostal muscles
what does bifurcate mean?
split into two
the bronchi bifruricate into branches heading to how many separate lobes in the lungs?
3 lobes on the right and 2 on the left
How many times can the bronchi split?
up to 12 times
When do bronchi become bronchioles?
once they have branches off more and gotten smaller
what is the defining features of bronchioles? what does this allow?
they don’t have hyaline cartilage as part of their structure, they are supported by smooth muscle
This means they can open and constrict
what does the opening and constricting of bronchioles allow? what is this called?
it allows the force of air flow to be controlled
bronchi-diliation/constriction
how much air remains in the lungs after you exhale as much as you can?
1 - 1.2 litres
What is bronchospasm? when can this occur?
spasm of bronchial smooth muscle, producing narrowing of the bronchi.
in athsma
What does the blue inhaler - Ventolin - do?
it is a bronchodilator
what is at the end of the bronchioles?
the alveoli
what is the pleura?
A thin layer of tissue that covers the lungs and lines the interior wall of the chest cavity.
What does the pleura do? (3)
keeps our lungs open
It protects and cushions the lungs.
This tissue secretes a small amount of fluid that acts as a lubricant, allowing the lungs to move smoothly in the chest cavity while breathing
What is the structure of the pleura? (2)
Visceral pleura – covers the lungs.
Parietal pleura – covers the internal surface of the thoracic cavity
the zeros fluid is in between
What is the role of serous fluid?
keeps the pleura separate, pressureised, and stop them collapsing.
What is pleurisy?
when the pleura become inflamed and cause chest pain and difficulty breathing
What is pleural effusion?
when excess fluid accumulates in that pleural cavity and puts pressure on the lungs makes it difficult to breathe.
What is the pneumothorax?
a collapsed lung
pleural membrane gets broken
Pressure increases and the 2 pleura separate and the lung collapses.
what are alveoli made up of?
simple, squamous epithelial tissue, really thin cells. about 0.2 micrometers.
why is the tissue on the alveoli so thin?
to allow gases to permeate.
What are alveoli surrounded by?
a dense network of capillaries
what does the close proximity of alveoli and capillaries allow for?
efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Red blood cells can travel along the capillary in _______ ________ to bring the surface close to the ______ to maximise the uptake..
single file
gases
What do type 1 alveolar cells (pneumocytes) form?
the structure of the alveolar wall and cover about 95% of the alveolar surface.
What do type 2 alveolar cells do?
These cuboidal cells secrete surfactant, a substance that reduces surface tension, preventing alveolar collapse.
What is the respiratory membrane?
the thin layer of connective tissue between the alveolar epithelium and the capillary endothelium.
What does the respiratory membrane contain? why?
elastic fibres, collagen, and cells that provide structural support and elasticity to the alveoli.
what are Alveolar macrophages, also known as pulmonary macrophages or dust cells?
are a type of immune cell found in the alveoli
What is phagocytosis?
the process phagocytes do; engulf and digest debris, dead cells, and pathogens.
are alveolar macrophages phagocytes? why?
yes they engulf and digest debris, dead cells, and pathogens.
Alveolar macrophages help orchestrate which bodily response? how?
the inflammatory response during lung injury and infection.
They release various cytokines and chemokines to recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury
how does smoking damage the alveoli? (4)
Smoking damages the walls of the alveoli (emphysema)
reduces the elasticity of the alveolar walls,
Smoking induces chronic inflammation in the alveoli
Smoking impairs the function of alveolar macrophages
What is emphysema?
when the walls of the alveoli break down, and merge into larger, less efficient air spaces.
What happens when the alveolar walls elasticity is reduced?
it harder for the lungs to expand and contract
What happens when the alveoli
is chronically inflamed?
can lead to further tissue damage and scarring - fibrosis.
What is COPD?
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): The combination of emphysema and chronic bronchitis, both of which are exacerbated by smoking, leads to COPD, a progressive disease that makes breathing increasingly difficult.
Which are the true ribs? why?
1 - 7
These ribs are directly attached to the sternum via their costal cartilages
Which are the false ribs? why?
8 - 10
These ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum through the cartilage of the rib above.
which are the floating ribs? why?
11 - 12 These ribs do not attach to the sternum at all.
what are the three parts of the sternum?
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid Process
What is the minubrium in the sternum?
The upper part that articulates with the clavicles and the first pair of ribs
What ribs does the body of the sternum articulate with?
The central part that articulates with the second to seventh pairs of ribs
What is the xiphoid process in the sternum?
The small, cartilaginous lower part
What are the costovertebral joints?
Joints between the ribs and the thoracic vertebrae They are synovial plane joints (flat or near flat gliding joints.)
What are the sternocostal joints?
Joints between the sternum and the costal cartilages of the true ribs. The first one is a primary cartilaginous and 2-7 are synovial plane joints.
What are the costochontral joints?
Joints between the ribs
What do the external intercostals do?
Aid in inhalation by lifting the ribs
What do the internal intercostals do?
Aid in forced exhalation by depressing the ribs but its largely passive. Elasticicty.
what is inspiration?
inhalation
what happens to the diaphragm
and ribs during inspiration? why?
the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, while the external intercostal muscles contract to lift the rib cage up and out. This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity
During expiration, what does the diaphragm and intercostal muscles do?
the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, causing the thoracic cavity to decrease in volume.
what do the elastic properties of the lungs and chest wall help with?
help return them to their resting state, increasing the intrapulmonary pressure above atmospheric pressure and pushing air out of the lungs
What do auxillary muscles do in active respiration?
that help when more active respiration is needed – running, climbing etc. Breathing is not their primary function but they help
What regions of the brain centrally control breathing?
The medulla oblongata and the pons
what specifically does the medulla oblongata do to centrally control breathing?
it controls the rhythm of breathing by sending signals to the respiratory muscles to contract and relax
What does the pons contain that helps centrally control breathing?
the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers
How do the the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers help centrally control breathing?
they regulate rate and depth of breathing by modifying the signals from the medulla
What in the meddula helps peripherally control breathing?
Central chemoreceptors
What do the central chemoreceptors do to help control breathing peripherally?
They monitor the levels of carbon dioxide and PH in the cerebrospinal fluid
What happens when the central chemoreceptors detect an increase in CO2 or decrease in PH?
it stimulates an increase in the rate and depth of breathing
Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors found?
in the carotid bodies and aortic (heart) bodies
What do the peripheral chemoreceptors detect?
changes in blood oxygen, CO2 and PH
What happens when peripheral chemoreceptors detect low oxygen?
it triggers an increase in breathing rate
are peripheral chemoreceptors found in the central or peripheral control of the respiratory system?
peripheral
Where are the mechanoreceptors located?
in the lungs and airways
Are the mechanoreceptors part of the central or peripheral control of the respiratory system?
peripheral
What do the mechanoreceptors respond to?
they respond to changes in lung volume
How do the mechanoreceptors prevent over-inflation of the lungs?
by sending inhibitory signals to the brain stem
where are proprioceptors found?
In muscles and joints
What do proprioceptors provide for the respiratory system?
feedback on the physical activity level, helping to adjust breathing during exercise.
Which part of the brain allows for voluntary control of breathing? (eg holding breath)
The cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex can ___________ the automatic signals from the brainstem __________
override
temporarily
what two systems are part of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
system increases the breathing rate and dilates the airways during stress or physical activity.
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
slows down the breathing rate and constricts the airways during rest.
What does ATP do?
stores and transfers energy within cells
when a cell needs energy, what does it break?
the bond between the second and third phosphate groups
when a cell needs energy and it breaks the bonds, what does this cause?
a release of energy and conversion of ATP to ADP
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate
What does ADP stand for?
Adenosine diphosphate
What are 5 things ATP powers in the cell?
- muscle contraction
- nerve impulse propagation
- Chemical synthesis
- Production of ATP
- Cellular respiration
How does ATP power muscle contraction?
Provides energy for muscle fibres to contract
How does ATP help nerve impulse propagation?
it Supports the transmission of nerve signals.
How does ATP support chemical synthesis?
Fuels the synthesis of macromolecules like DNA and proteins.
How is ATP produced?
through cellular respiration
What are the three main steps of cellular respiration?
- Glycolysis
- The krebs cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
What happens during the first step of cellular respiration (glycolysis)?
this occurs in the cytoplasm
it is the breaking down of glucose
What happens during the second step of cellular respiration (krebs cycle)?
this occurs in the mitochondria, it produces electron carriers
What happens during the third step of cellular respiration (oxidative phosphoylation)?
occurs in the mitochondria, the electron transport train generates lots of ATP
What is COPD?
a progressive lung disease characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation. It primarily includes two conditions: emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
What are the 4 symptoms of COPD?
Shortness of Breath
Chronic Cough
Wheezing
Chest Tightness
What are 6 causes of COPD?
smoking
air pollution
occupational hazards
genetic factors
emphysema
chronic bronchitis
How is COPD diagnosed? (3)
spirometry
chest xray/CT scan
Blood tests
What is spirometry?
a test to measure lung function and airflow obstruction
What are 4 treatments for COPD?
smoking cessasion
medication
pulmonary rehab
oxygen therapy
What kind of medications are used to treat COPD? why?
: Bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and antibiotics to manage symptoms and prevent infections.
How does pulmonary rehab help treat COPD?
: Exercise and education programs to improve lung function and quality of life.
Who with COPD would need oxygen therapy?
For patients with severe COPD and low blood oxygen levels.
What are 5 complications of COPD?
- frequent respiratory infections
- Heart problems
- Lung Cancer
- Depression
- anxiety
why do people with COPD get frequent respiratory infections?
they have Increased susceptibility to colds, flu, and pneumonia
why do people with COPD get heart problems?
they have Higher risk of heart disease and hypertension.
why are people with COPD more likely to get lung cancer?
due to chronic lung damage
what cells does Covid 19 primarily target?
Type 2 alveolar cells
What do type 2 alveolar cells help do?
they produce surfactant and help maintain the structure of the alveoli
