Respiration Flashcards
1
Q
In respiration, what is pulmonary ventilation?
A
Getting air from outside the body (the environment) into our body
2
Q
In respiration, what is conditioning of the air?
A
Warming, cleaning and moistening the air (don’t want pollutants)
3
Q
In respiration, what is external respiration?
A
Gas exchange between blood and lungs, moving oxygen from lungs to bloodstream and carbon dioxide out
4
Q
In respiration, respiratory gasses must be _____________ from the _______ to the tissues.
A
Transported
Lungs
5
Q
How long can the body survive without oxygen?
A
A few minutes
6
Q
In respiration, what is internal respiration?
A
Gas exchange from blood to cells and vice versa
7
Q
In respiration, what is cellular respiration?
A
The process by which cells convert nutrients, particularly glucose, into energy in the form of ATP. This is essential for powering cellular activities.
8
Q
How do the lungs influence sound?
A
They play a role in sound production
9
Q
How do the lungs influence smell? How is this evolutionary?
A
They are involved in the smelling process through inhaling scents which is an evolutionary trait that allows us to identify the smell of others and of gone off food
10
Q
How do the body condition the air?
A
The body cleans, moistens and warms up air to protect us from pollutants
11
Q
What respiratory organs and body features do we have in our head and neck? (6)
A
Nostril
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
12
Q
What body part is under the larynx and goes to our lungs?
A
Trachea
13
Q
What are the two branches at the end of the trachea?
A
Right main primary bronchus
Left main primary bronchus
14
Q
What are the branches that come off of the bronchus?
A
Bronchi
15
Q
What is the carina of the trachea?
A
The place in the trachea where it branches into the bronchus’
16
Q
Where does the parietal pleura (and visceral pleura) cover?
A
The surface of the lungs themselves
17
Q
Where does the diaphragm sit?
A
Under the lungs
18
Q
Where are the alveoli located?
A
At the end of the bronchioles (smallest branch in the lung)
19
Q
What is in the upper respiratory tract? (8)
A
Nasal cavities
Oral cavities
Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Trachea
20
Q
What is the primary entrance of air into the body?
A
The nose
21
Q
What is the inside of the nose lined with? Why?
A
Tiny hairs called cilia and mucus to trap dust, pollen and other particles to clean the air.
22
Q
What does the nasal cavity do to the air?
A
It adjusts the temperature of the air. If it is too cold the blood vessels warm it up before it reaches the lungs.
23
Q
What is the secondary entrance of air into the body?
A
The mouth or oral cavity
24
Q
What do the nasal conchae do?
A
They are ridged which causes turbulance. This bounces the air into the cillia to clean it. The cillia can then wave and beat mucus with the dust etc to the back of the throat.
25
Once the cillia has moved mucus to the back of the throat, what happens?
It is swallowed or sneezed out, to dispose of it
26
Where are the olfactory cells located?
In the olfactory epithelium, a membrane in the upper part of the nasal cavity
27
After the nasal or oral cavity, where does air go?
The pharynx
28
What is the pharynx?
A muscular hallway shared with the digestive system. Where food and air meet before going separate ways.
29
Which of the pharynx’s gets the air from the nasal cavities?
The nasopharynx
30
Which is the cavity that is connected to the mouth and pharynx?
the oropharynx
31
what is the purpose of the hard palette? (2) where is it located?(1)
it is to separate the oral and nasal cavity and aids swallowing and speaking
is located in the back of the oral cavity
32
What other palate is in the oral cavity? What does it do?
the soft palate
it blocks food and other substances from entering the nasal cavity when swallowing
33
What is at the end of the hard and soft palate?
the uvula (Dangly bit) which also separates the oral and nasal cavities
34
what are the two sinuses in the upper respiratory tract?
sphenoidal sinus
frontal sinus
35
what is the 3 purposes of the sinuses in the upper respiratory tract?
to lighten the bone structure of the head
and mucus
and resonate sound and improve quality of voice
36
What is the purpose of tonsils?
the tonsils are part of immune response by helping to filter out germs
37
What does the pharyngtmypanic/Eustachian tube connect?
the middle ear to the back of the throat, specifically the nasopharynx
38
What role does the pharyngotympanic/Eustachian tube play a crucial role in?
balance and ensuring proper ear function
39
One of the primary functions of the _________________ tube is to equalize the air pressure on both sides of the _________.
eustachian
eardrum
40
What should the pressure in the middle ear be the same as?
the air pressure outside the body
41
What does your Eustachian tube do when you experience a rapid change in altitude? what does this help?
it opens to allow air to flow in or our the middle ear
It helps balance the pressure and prevents the eardrum from stretching or becoming painful
42
The Eustachian tube also helps ______ any _______ or fluid that may accumulate in the __________ ____.
drain
mucus
middle ear
43
what actions we perform open the Eustachian tube? What does this help?
swallowing, yawning or chewing
This helps clear any excess fluid and keep the middle ear clean and dry
44
Under normal circumstances is the Eustachian tube open or closed?
closed
45
How does the eustachian tube protect us?
it acts as a barrier, preventing pathogens like bacteria and viruses from travelling from the throat to the middle ear
46
If the Eustachian tube is blocked or doesn't function properly, what can this lead to? why?
ear infections (otitis media) because fluid can accumulate in the middle ear, providing a breeding ground for infections
47
What is the role of the pharynx?
it makes sure air continues to the lungs and food and drink goes to the oesophagus
48
Where does air pass down after the laryngopharynx?
The larynx
49
where are vocal chords located?
larynx
50
How does the larynx work for sound production?
they vibrate as air passes through them
51
What goes over the trachea when you swallow? why?
the epiglottis
to make sure food doesn't go down the wrong way
52
When does the journey of the air through the upper respiratory tract end?
When it reaches the trachea (windpipe) which then guides it down to the lungs
53
at what rate do cilia beat?
at a rate of about 10 to 20 beats per second
54
What is the respiratory mucosa?
a specialised lining found throughout much of the respiratory tract
55
The respiratory mucosa is primarily composed of what?
Ciliated (has cilia), Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
56
what does pseudostratified mean?
or being an epithelium consisting of closely packed cells which appear to be arranged in layers but all of which are in fact attached to the basement membrane
57
What is an epithelium?
a thin layer of tissue that covers organs, glands and other body structures
58
Where are goblet cells located and what is their purpose?
interspersed within the epithelium and are responsible for secreting mucus
59
What does the mucus produced from the goblet cells do?
traps dust, pathogens and other particles, preventing them from entering the lungs
60
How is the mucus cleared from the body?
the cilia on the epithelial cells beat in a coordinated manner to move mucus and trapped particles upwards towards the throat, where they can be swallowed or expelled
61
The respiratory mucosa lines most of the respiratory tract, including the ______ cavity, trachea, and ________
nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi
62
what is and Where is the hyoid bone?
is small, U-shaped bone located in the neck, just above the larynx (voice box) and below the mandible (jawbone).
63
Does the hyoid bone connect directly to any other bone?
no
64
how is the hyoid bone anchored?
it’s anchored in place by a network of muscles and ligaments
65
What does the hyoid bone support? how?
the tongue
muscles that control the movement of the tongue and floor of the mouth attach to it, enabling functions like speaking, swallowing, and breathing.
66
What happens to the hyoid bone during swallowing? what does this do?
the hyoid bone moves upward and forward,
helping to open the oesophagus and guiding food into the digestive tract while preventing it from entering the airway.
67
What role does the hyoid bone play in vocalisation?
It supports the muscles that control the larynx, or voice box, which is essential for producing sound and speech.
68
What are the arytenoid cartilages?
a pair of small, pyramid-shaped structures located in the larynx
69
What doe the arytenoid cartilages do?
They play a crucial role in vocalization and breathing. By allowing the vocal cords to be tensed, relaxed, or approximated, they enable the production of sound.
70
describe the structure of the arytenoid cartilages?
Each arytenoid cartilage has a base, an apex, and three surfaces.
71
What do the arytenoid cartilages articulate with? forming what?
he cricoid cartilage, forming the cricoarytenoid joints.
72
What do the arytenoid cartilage serve as attachment points for?
several muscles and ligaments, including the vocal cords and the intrinsic muscles of the larynx.
73
Does the trachea have to stay open?
yes
74
Why are the rings of cartilage in the trachea incomplete?
they are c shaped and joined together by muscle. If it was solid, it wouldn’t allow you to swallow big gulps of food which are travelling down the oesophagus.
Also, you need to modulate the space to increase force for things like coughing
75
what is bronchi the plural of?
bronchus
76
What do bronchi have to help them stay open?
cartilage bands
77
What does the diaphragm separate?
the thoracic cavity from the rest of the abdominal cavity
78
at rest, what shape is the diaphragm?
dome shaped
79
when contracted, what happens to the diaphragm?
it pulls down, causes the thoracic cavity to expand and draws air into the lungs
80
As well as the diaphragm, what is the thoracic cavity made up of?
the chest wall with rib cage and intercostal muscles
81
what does bifurcate mean?
split into two
82
the bronchi bifruricate into branches heading to how many separate lobes in the lungs?
3 lobes on the right and 2 on the left
83
How many times can the bronchi split?
up to 12 times
84
When do bronchi become bronchioles?
once they have branches off more and gotten smaller
85
what is the defining features of bronchioles? what does this allow?
they don't have hyaline cartilage as part of their structure, they are supported by smooth muscle
This means they can open and constrict
86
what does the opening and constricting of bronchioles allow? what is this called?
it allows the force of air flow to be controlled
bronchi-diliation/constriction
87
how much air remains in the lungs after you exhale as much as you can?
1 - 1.2 litres
88
What is bronchospasm? when can this occur?
spasm of bronchial smooth muscle, producing narrowing of the bronchi.
in athsma
89
What does the blue inhaler - Ventolin - do?
it is a bronchodilator
90
what is at the end of the bronchioles?
the alveoli
91
what is the pleura?
A thin layer of tissue that covers the lungs and lines the interior wall of the chest cavity.
92
What does the pleura do? (3)
keeps our lungs open
It protects and cushions the lungs.
This tissue secretes a small amount of fluid that acts as a lubricant, allowing the lungs to move smoothly in the chest cavity while breathing
93
What is the structure of the pleura? (2)
Visceral pleura – covers the lungs.
Parietal pleura – covers the internal surface of the thoracic cavity
the zeros fluid is in between
94
What is the role of serous fluid?
keeps the pleura separate, pressureised, and stop them collapsing.
95
What is pleurisy?
when the pleura become inflamed and cause chest pain and difficulty breathing
96
What is pleural effusion?
when excess fluid accumulates in that pleural cavity and puts pressure on the lungs makes it difficult to breathe.
97
What is the pneumothorax?
a collapsed lung
pleural membrane gets broken
Pressure increases and the 2 pleura separate and the lung collapses.
98
what are alveoli made up of?
simple, squamous epithelial tissue, really thin cells. about 0.2 micrometers.
99
why is the tissue on the alveoli so thin?
to allow gases to permeate.
100
What are alveoli surrounded by?
a dense network of capillaries
101
what does the close proximity of alveoli and capillaries allow for?
efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
102
Red blood cells can travel along the capillary in _______ ________ to bring the surface close to the ______ to maximise the uptake..
single file
gases
103
What do type 1 alveolar cells (pneumocytes) form?
the structure of the alveolar wall and cover about 95% of the alveolar surface.
104
What do type 2 alveolar cells do?
These cuboidal cells secrete surfactant, a substance that reduces surface tension, preventing alveolar collapse.
105
What is the respiratory membrane?
the thin layer of connective tissue between the alveolar epithelium and the capillary endothelium.
106
What does the respiratory membrane contain? why?
elastic fibres, collagen, and cells that provide structural support and elasticity to the alveoli.
107
what are Alveolar macrophages, also known as pulmonary macrophages or dust cells?
are a type of immune cell found in the alveoli
108
What is phagocytosis?
the process phagocytes do; engulf and digest debris, dead cells, and pathogens.
109
are alveolar macrophages phagocytes? why?
yes they engulf and digest debris, dead cells, and pathogens.
110
Alveolar macrophages help orchestrate which bodily response? how?
the inflammatory response during lung injury and infection.
They release various cytokines and chemokines to recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury
111
how does smoking damage the alveoli? (4)
Smoking damages the walls of the alveoli (emphysema)
reduces the elasticity of the alveolar walls,
Smoking induces chronic inflammation in the alveoli
Smoking impairs the function of alveolar macrophages
112
What is emphysema?
when the walls of the alveoli break down, and merge into larger, less efficient air spaces.
113
What happens when the alveolar walls elasticity is reduced?
it harder for the lungs to expand and contract
114
What happens when the alveoli
is chronically inflamed?
can lead to further tissue damage and scarring - fibrosis.
115
What is COPD?
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): The combination of emphysema and chronic bronchitis, both of which are exacerbated by smoking, leads to COPD, a progressive disease that makes breathing increasingly difficult.
116
Which are the true ribs? why?
1 - 7
These ribs are directly attached to the sternum via their costal cartilages
117
Which are the false ribs? why?
8 - 10
These ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum through the cartilage of the rib above.
118
which are the floating ribs? why?
11 - 12 These ribs do not attach to the sternum at all.
119
what are the three parts of the sternum?
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid Process
120
What is the minubrium in the sternum?
The upper part that articulates with the clavicles and the first pair of ribs
121
What ribs does the body of the sternum articulate with?
The central part that articulates with the second to seventh pairs of ribs
122
What is the xiphoid process in the sternum?
The small, cartilaginous lower part
123
What are the costovertebral joints?
Joints between the ribs and the thoracic vertebrae They are synovial plane joints (flat or near flat gliding joints.)
124
What are the sternocostal joints?
Joints between the sternum and the costal cartilages of the true ribs. The first one is a primary cartilaginous and 2-7 are synovial plane joints.
125
What are the costochontral joints?
Joints between the ribs
126
What do the external intercostals do?
Aid in inhalation by lifting the ribs
127
What do the internal intercostals do?
Aid in forced exhalation by depressing the ribs but its largely passive. Elasticicty.
128
what is inspiration?
inhalation
129
what happens to the diaphragm
and ribs during inspiration? why?
the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, while the external intercostal muscles contract to lift the rib cage up and out. This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity
130
During expiration, what does the diaphragm and intercostal muscles do?
the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, causing the thoracic cavity to decrease in volume.
131
what do the elastic properties of the lungs and chest wall help with?
help return them to their resting state, increasing the intrapulmonary pressure above atmospheric pressure and pushing air out of the lungs
132
What do auxillary muscles do in active respiration?
that help when more active respiration is needed – running, climbing etc. Breathing is not their primary function but they help
133
What regions of the brain centrally control breathing?
The medulla oblongata and the pons
134
what specifically does the medulla oblongata do to centrally control breathing?
it controls the rhythm of breathing by sending signals to the respiratory muscles to contract and relax
135
What does the pons contain that helps centrally control breathing?
the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers
136
How do the the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers help centrally control breathing?
they regulate rate and depth of breathing by modifying the signals from the medulla
137
What in the meddula helps peripherally control breathing?
Central chemoreceptors
138
What do the central chemoreceptors do to help control breathing peripherally?
They monitor the levels of carbon dioxide and PH in the cerebrospinal fluid
139
What happens when the central chemoreceptors detect an increase in CO2 or decrease in PH?
it stimulates an increase in the rate and depth of breathing
140
Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors found?
in the carotid bodies and aortic (heart) bodies
141
What do the peripheral chemoreceptors detect?
changes in blood oxygen, CO2 and PH
142
What happens when peripheral chemoreceptors detect low oxygen?
it triggers an increase in breathing rate
143
are peripheral chemoreceptors found in the central or peripheral control of the respiratory system?
peripheral
144
Where are the mechanoreceptors located?
in the lungs and airways
145
Are the mechanoreceptors part of the central or peripheral control of the respiratory system?
peripheral
146
What do the mechanoreceptors respond to?
they respond to changes in lung volume
147
How do the mechanoreceptors prevent over-inflation of the lungs?
by sending inhibitory signals to the brain stem
148
where are proprioceptors found?
In muscles and joints
149
What do proprioceptors provide for the respiratory system?
feedback on the physical activity level, helping to adjust breathing during exercise.
150
Which part of the brain allows for voluntary control of breathing? (eg holding breath)
The cerebral cortex
151
The cerebral cortex can ___________ the automatic signals from the brainstem __________
override
temporarily
152
what two systems are part of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system
153
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
system increases the breathing rate and dilates the airways during stress or physical activity.
154
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
slows down the breathing rate and constricts the airways during rest.
155
What does ATP do?
stores and transfers energy within cells
156
when a cell needs energy, what does it break?
the bond between the second and third phosphate groups
157
when a cell needs energy and it breaks the bonds, what does this cause?
a release of energy and conversion of ATP to ADP
158
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate
159
What does ADP stand for?
Adenosine diphosphate
160
What are 5 things ATP powers in the cell?
1. muscle contraction
2. nerve impulse propagation
3. Chemical synthesis
4. Production of ATP
5. Cellular respiration
161
How does ATP power muscle contraction?
Provides energy for muscle fibres to contract
162
How does ATP help nerve impulse propagation?
it Supports the transmission of nerve signals.
163
How does ATP support chemical synthesis?
Fuels the synthesis of macromolecules like DNA and proteins.
164
How is ATP produced?
through cellular respiration
165
What are the three main steps of cellular respiration?
1. Glycolysis
2. The krebs cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
166
What happens during the first step of cellular respiration (glycolysis)?
this occurs in the cytoplasm
it is the breaking down of glucose
167
What happens during the second step of cellular respiration (krebs cycle)?
this occurs in the mitochondria, it produces electron carriers
168
What happens during the third step of cellular respiration (oxidative phosphoylation)?
occurs in the mitochondria, the electron transport train generates lots of ATP
169
What is COPD?
a progressive lung disease characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation. It primarily includes two conditions: emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
170
What are the 4 symptoms of COPD?
Shortness of Breath
Chronic Cough
Wheezing
Chest Tightness
171
What are 6 causes of COPD?
smoking
air pollution
occupational hazards
genetic factors
emphysema
chronic bronchitis
172
How is COPD diagnosed? (3)
spirometry
chest xray/CT scan
Blood tests
173
What is spirometry?
a test to measure lung function and airflow obstruction
174
What are 4 treatments for COPD?
smoking cessasion
medication
pulmonary rehab
oxygen therapy
175
What kind of medications are used to treat COPD? why?
: Bronchodilators, corticosteroids, and antibiotics to manage symptoms and prevent infections.
176
How does pulmonary rehab help treat COPD?
: Exercise and education programs to improve lung function and quality of life.
177
Who with COPD would need oxygen therapy?
For patients with severe COPD and low blood oxygen levels.
178
What are 5 complications of COPD?
1. frequent respiratory infections
2. Heart problems
3. Lung Cancer
4. Depression
5. anxiety
179
why do people with COPD get frequent respiratory infections?
they have Increased susceptibility to colds, flu, and pneumonia
180
why do people with COPD get heart problems?
they have Higher risk of heart disease and hypertension.
181
why are people with COPD more likely to get lung cancer?
due to chronic lung damage
182
what cells does Covid 19 primarily target?
Type 2 alveolar cells
183
What do type 2 alveolar cells help do?
they produce surfactant and help maintain the structure of the alveoli
