Research Methods- data recording, analysis, presentation Flashcards
What is raw data?
Data that has not yet been tampered with/ processed in any way (e.g. scores on a test, tally scores)
What is nominal level data?
Data that can be categorised, but no order/ rank between the categories can be distinguished (e.g. yes/no, red/blue/green)
What is ordinal level data?
Data that can be categorised and ranked in an order, but nothing can be said about intervals between rankings (e.g. placement in a race [1st-10th] with no time record
What is interval level data?
Data that can be categorised, ranked and differences can be identified between data points
This is data measured on a safe numerical scale (e.g. times in seconds to run a 400m lap)
What is primary data?
Results come straight from the source
First-hand
Can be either qualitative or quantitative
What is secondary data?
Data has already been conducted by another researcher
Can be combined with results from similar studies, then re-analysed to create a meta-analysis (e.g. autobiographies, statistics)
What is qualitative data?
Data in a descriptive, detailed form
strength/ weakness of qualitative data?
strength: more detailed= more insight into WHY people behave the way they do
weakness: harder to analyse and compare
What is quantitative data?
Data in a numerical, statistical form
strengths/ weaknesses of quantitative data?
strength: easier to analyse and interpret for comparative purposes (graphs, bar charts)
weakness: much more limited in what it says about WHY
Measures of central tendency- What is the mean?
Average of the data set- add up all response values, divide by total number of responses
(it is only used for interval data)
strengths/ weaknesses of using the mean
strength: most accurate measure of central tendency
weakness: can be distorted by outliers
Measures of central tendency- What is the median?
The value in the middle of the data set- order each value from smallest to largest
(only used for ordinal and interval data)
strengths/ weaknesses of using the mean?
strength: not effected by one off extreme values in data set
weakness: can’t inform us of any extreme values
Measures of central tendency- What is the mode?
Mos popular/common value- can be calculated across all levels of data (only used for nominal data)
strengths/ weaknesses of using the mode?
strength: useful when knowledge of frequency is required
weakness: rarely useful in smaller data sets
Measures of dispersion- What is the range?
The lowest data point is subtracted from the highest data point (only used for ordinal and interval data)
strengths/ weaknesses of using the range?
strength: easy method to identify the difference of the data set
weakness: can be distorted by extreme values
Measures of dispersion- What is variance?
- find mean of the data
- subtract mean from each individual data point- this = ‘deviations from the mean’
- square each ‘deviation from mean’
- add up squared deviations
- divide total squared deviations by number of data points -1
Measures of dispersion- What is standard deviation?
Same steps as variance (1-5)
6. find the square root of the variation
What is meant by representativeness?
The extent to which findings can be applied/ generalised to the entire population
What is meant by reliability?
How consistent something is- can it be repeated to generate the same results?
What is internal reliability?
How consistently a method measures within itself (e.g. every cm on a ruler is the same distance apart)
What is external reliability?
How consistent a measure is when used over a period of time when repeated (e.g. a table that was measured two weeks ago will still be the same length two weeks later)
What is inter-rater reliability
Consensus/ agreement amongst multiple rankers/ observers (e.g. 4 judges give 1 dancer scores of 10= high inter-rater reliability)
What is the test-retest method?
When you test the same participant twice over a period of time on the same test- similar scores= high external reliability
What is the split-half method?
Compare first results of the first part of measurement with the second half- similar/ same results= high internal reliability (e.g. first half of questions on questionnaire compared to results of second half)
What is mean by validity?
How accurate something is
What is internal validity?
How accurately the study has been conducted- refers to test being measured or used (also whether changes in DV are caused by the IV and not other factors)
4 types: face, criterion, construct, concurrent
What is face validity?
Whether or not a measure measures what it’s supposed to at ‘face value’- e.g. asking relevant questions relevant to the topic on a questionnaire
What is criterion validity?
How well findings predict what happens beyond the research (predictive validity) - e.g. KS2 SATS results are used to predict progress of pupils at GCSE
What is concurrent validity?
Comparing a new method with an already established method that measures the same variables- if the 2 agree, then the method is valid (same scores= high concurrent validity)
What is construct validity?
Whether the measure is actually measuring the theoretical construct it is meant to be (similar to face validity, but greater depth)
What is external validity?
Whether or not the findings of the study can be generalised to the target population- relates to issues beyond the investigation
2 types: ecological, population
What is ecological validity?
Whether the method measures behaviour that is representative of naturally occurring behaviour (how accurate are findings to real life occurrences)- e.g. asking a driver to rate stress levels when driving whilst sat on a sofa is not reflective of real life emotions
What is population validity?
How far findings from one sample can be generalised to the whole of the population from which sample was taken
Respect- What is informed consent?
Participants should agree/ consent to being involved- they should be informed of details prior to the study
Respect- What does it mean to have the right to withdraw?
Participants should be able to pull out of the research at any stage- even at the end, they should be allowed to withdraw results
Respect- What is confidentiality?
The identities of participants, when carrying out research should be kept private and confidential- e.g. ask participants not to write their names on their data
Responsibility- What is protection from harm?
The researcher should not cause anyone any emotional/ physical harm- should be mindful of sensitive issues (emotional damage can often be vague)
Responsibility- What is a debrief?
The researcher gives the participant a full run down of what the investigation was truly about/ what it was aiming to do
Integrity- What is deception?
Involves lying to the participant- this is sometimes done on purpose to achieve valid results- but must be followed by a debrief
This should be avoided when possible
What is competence?
Abiding to the rules of ethics/ following them as closely as possible.
What are demand characteristics?
Occur when the participant knows they are involved in research- these can affect the overall results of the study
What is social desirability?
The participant(s) changes their behaviour to suit the expectations of the researcher to make them look good/ better
What is observer bias?
The views of the researcher (expectations, opinions, prejudices) may influence what they record in a study
What are observer effects?
Participants may change their behaviour when they know they’re being watched/ observed
