PSYC228_Chap7 Flashcards
most dramatic outcome of developing nervous system in school-aged children
inc in self-control
brain plasticity
begins to slow betw 5 + 7, but remains present throughout lifespan
allows children + adults to adapt to varied environments
childhood
neuron density first inc then dec as synapses are rpuned to accomodate environemental demands
myeline growth continues to growth
thru childhood + adolescence, but most significant in first 2 yrs
2 parts of brain where myelination takes place
grey + white matter
grey matter
parts of the brain that contain neuron cell bodies + some of their connections
myelination of grey matter allows faster action of neurons - resulting in more complex + efficient pathway for neural connections - inc in complex activities
white matter
spongy tissue that connects various areas of brain to one another as well as parts of the spinal cord
myelination of white matter results in faster communication betw left + right hemispheres of brain via corpus callosum
also connection of brain to spinal cord becomes more myelinated so coordination is improved too
what do behavioural changes result from
developments in prefrontal cortex
prefrontal cortex
frontmost part of frontal lobe of brain responsible for complex though, planning, + problem solving
during middle + late childhood, neurons of prefrontal cortex
become incingly myelinated + synaptic conncetions in prefrontal cortex in + become more specialized
may be responsible for inc self-knwoledge, enhanced, social awareness, + more efficient cognitive processing
as child approaches puberty skeleton
expands in width + length - more adult like proportions + inc coordination
bones lengthening + thickening cause a lot of it
new boen added to outer surface of bone + minerals inside bone used to grow it, so diameter grows too
by 10 yrs, children have 50% of bone mass
interrelated factors conributing to development of skeletal system during childhood
gentics
nutrition
hormones
hypothalamus + pituitary gland stimulate production of human growth hormone which stimulates organs to inc cell production in bones
+ physical activity plays inc role in muscle development + mineral content + bone density
bone growth
precedes muscle growth - muscles stretch
during middle + late childhood, fine + gross motor skills
significantly improve
3 improvements in motor development during childhood
consistency
flexibility
efficiency
develop from continuing improvement in coordinatino _ interaction of nervous + skeleton system + gentic + environmental influences
consistency
ability to physically repeat an action in the same way with same level of function
felxibility
ability to perform a physical act in a variety of contexts with similar outcome
efficiency
muscular + cardiovascular system energy expended to perform a physical action
thinking operationally means
thinking logically
piaget
in concrete operational stage, children are able to understand logical processes in relation to tangible physical objects, but
not yet in relaiton to abstractions
classification
hallmark of concrete operational thought + ability to group objects to their shared properties
after preoperatonal stage
concrete operational stage
school age children
piaget’s 3rd stage of cognitive development
concrete operational stage
piaget’s 3rd stage of cognitive development where school-aged childrne begin to think logcically aout concret events
realize that one person can be happy while another is sad
found in ability to understand conservation
recognize conservation of objects + abiilty to defend it
+ reversibility
reversibility
ability to understand that tangible objects can return tot heir original form
classification
ability to create groups or classes of objects + sort htme by similar properties
seriation
ability to sort objects using rule that determines an increasing magnitude of one or more dimensions
type of logic that requires arrangement of items by using system of quantitative relationships like size or amount
2 key abilities involved in classification
ability to identify particular property that defines class
ablity to id specific members of the class
(understanding how world is classified is necessary for survival - hot and cold, dangerous + safe
transitivity
logical rule that syas. if A > B, B>C, then A>C
key for artithmetic
concrete operational thinkers limiations
base decisions about world on own reality or experiences
vygotsky
diff than piaget
looked beyond child to consider role of social + cultural experiences in children’s thinking
children develop their own thinking in context of
other people
5 key features of scaffolding students’ learnign environments
sharing common goal
conducting ongoing diagnosis of students’ progress
offering dynamic + adaptive support
maintaining dialogues + interaction
fading + transfer of repsonsibility
teacher scaffolds in wolf study
monitored progress + help remain on task + refine strategies
peer scaffolds
inspire + challenge students’ thinking
cognitive load
total # of items that must be attended to by one’s working memory, where information is temporarily stored + manipulated
technology scaffolds helped students
visualize understandings, identify resouces, manage # of items that require their attention - cognitive load
whose contributions hav eled researchers to appreciate that problem solving + learnign are social processes?
vygotsky
4 key areas where problem-solving abilities improve according to information-processing theorists
selective attention
automatization
strategy construction
strategy selection
selective attention
ability to attend to a particular item in the environment while inhibiting other distracting stimuli
child’s ability to make a decision about what is relevant among competing stimuli
direct instruction in attention can help improve selective attention abilities
automatization
allocation of fewer attentional resources to perform simple, repetitive behaviours
reaction time
time involved in responding to a stimulus
with practice + repetition, tasks become routine and
reaction time dec + automatization improves
the lower the reaction time, the greater the automatization
strategy
efforful plan deliberately used to solve a specific problem
maintenance rehearsal
a retetion strategy where child repeats things to be remembered (words, images, actions) in order to remember them
strategy construction in childhood
but diff strategies availible
metamemory
one’s understanding of one’s own memory process
most dramatic change in memory ability betw ages of 3 + 10 is emergence of
metatheory
appears in early childhood + gradually inc from elementary thru high school
information enters from environment ->
sensory memory - holds sensory data for a very short time (visual information for less than sec, auditory info 2-3 sec)
-> some data moves into working memory. attention helps to determine which data enter orking memory and which are lost
working (short-term) memory - temporary storage + manipulation of info
-> encoded info moves into long-term memory for storage + is retreived from long-term memory for use in working memory
long-term memory - provides storage of large amounts of info over long time
metamemory 4 key functions
knowledge regarding function of memory + strategies based on knowledge
awareness of ongoing memory processes
awareness of of one’s ability to remember things
knowledge of relationship betw emotino + memory
(as they improve, cognitive efficiency inc)
3 categories of memory
sensory memory
working (short-term) memory
long-term memory
sensory memory
ability to briefly store sensory info so taht is may be processed
working (short-term memory)
ability to keep a small amount of info (7 +/- 2 items) in an active, ready to use state for a short time
long-term memory
vast + virtually limitless store of knowledge + prior events
executive function
aspect of brain that supervises the memroy process by regulating flow of info + controlling key processes
executive function
supervises memory process, regulating + controlling key processes including workign memroy, attention, planning, + problem solving etc.
supervises all processes taht are fundamental to cog development - even metacognition
metacognition
process of knowing about knowing
bjorklund - seen as cause + consequence of other aspects of cognition
general intelligence (g)
construct thought to underlie one’s ability to adapt + determine one’s competence level
psychometric theories
spatial ability
math
vocabulary
word fluency
comprehension
national average on stanford-binet intelligence test
100
most within 1 stdev - 68% within normal range
few lower than 70 or higher than 130 - genius cutoffs - 5% abnormal
binet
test to assess subnormal + normal children of intelligence
intelligence = judgement, good sense, practival snes, initiative, faculty of adapting one’s self to circumstances
binet-simon scales - detailed + precisely constructed assessments of child’s mental abilities/levels of judgement
intelligence quotient IQ
score calculated form results on an intelligence test originally derived from formula of (mental age/chronological age)*100
average score 100
standford-binet intelligence test
US version of binet-simon
mental age
let do IQ intelligence quotient
70 or lower = subaverage - intellectual disability
130 = genius or gifted
criticized for question wording + test-taking skills ipmroves score - led to wechsler intelligence scales
intellectual disabiltiy
disorder characterized by significantly below-average intellectual function (IQ <= 70) + impaired adaptive functioning with onset prior to 18 yrs
gifted
significantly above-average intellectual functioning as indicated by an IQ >=130
wechsler intelligence scales
popular psychometric test purporting to measure global capacity to think rationally
bec of criticism of standfor-binet’s test
now widely used, diff versions for diff ages
global capacity to think retionally
more global
3 components of Sternberg’s theory intelligence
analytical (strength in problem solving + analysis - good at analysis, evaluation, judgement, + comparison skills)
practical (having street smarts or ability to fit in well with one’s environment - good at application, implementation, execution, + utilization skills)
creative (ability to come up with novel solutions + to be inventive - good at invention, coping with novelty, + imagination skills)
triarchic theory of successful intelligence
theory of intelligence advanced by sternberg - emphasizing 3 key components of intelligence - analytical, practical, creative
analytical intelligence
abstract, verbal, mathematical + logical types of thinking
practical intelligence
common sense needed for real-world situations that require adaptation + basic knowledge
creative intelligence
divergent, novel, + problem solving oriented thinking
Sternberg + Gardner
didn’t like how narrow general intelligence was so made new theories:
triarchic theory of successful intelligence - sternberg + theory of multiple intelligences - gardner
8 diff intelligences in Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
linquistic
spatial
bodily/kinesthetic
intraperonal
logical/mathematical
musical
interpersonal
naturalistic
maybe spiritual/existential
theory of multiple intelligences
Gardner’s theory of intelligence suggesting existence of at least 8 distinct intelligences
most obvious change in development of language in childhood is
vocabulary size
gr 1 14000 wrds
grade 4 40000 words
language event
learn to understand context of words + pragmatics of language
learns that some statements are inappropriate + diff situations need diff tone
metalinguistic awareness
understanding of complexity of language + fact that language relies on context as well as individual word meaning
understanding of how language works
knowledge inc largely bec direct instruction in school
bilingual
able to speak 2 languages
multilingual
able to speak > 2 languages
% of multilingual homes is
growing in canada
2006 - 4.5 million people spoke at least 2 languages at home
2011 - 17.5% 5.8 million spoke at least 2 languages at home
children adopted in middle chlidhood who learn language of parents often have
no memory of their native language when become adults
second-language learning
process of learning another, non-native language
bilingual education
academic instruction in 2 langues: native language + secondary language
english as second language ESL
language education programs, in which non-English speaking students are taught English
children have opportunities for french + english language instruction in
public school system
all provinces offer minority language education programs which are a form of bilingual education
2008/09 aprox how many students enrolled in minority-language education where language spoken at home was classroom instruction language + minority in community
244000
helps with learning new culture+ additional language
english as a second language ESL programs
targetting students who have immigrated from non-english speaking locations
diverse structure
language immersion
language education programs where students are taught academic content exclusively in non-native language (language not spoken at home)
majority of second-language immersion programs aimed at anglophone students in non-quebec provinces
french immersion enrolment risen by 28% since 1990s
but many english-speaking canadians don’t retain bilingualism as grow older
english is non-intuitive language bec
words spelled with silent letters
all rules have exceptions
sounds vary by combination
no particular consistency
-leads to frustration + dec motivation
calls upon child’s temperament, effortful control, emotion regulation skills
learning to read takes academic resiliece unlike any other topic in school
6 classroom characteristics fostering academic resilience + reinforceing mastery of reading - McTigue, washburn + liew
- create warm + accepting environment
- assess academic resilience (measuring behaviours like engagement, inquiry, self-monitoring are useful indicators of academic resilience)
- model literacy + self-efficacy (teachers demonstrate academic resilience themselves + help students overcome roadblocks)
- use effective feedback (is specific + accurate + emphasizes effort)
- set goals (target specific + realistic goals + outcomes for student achievement)
- promote self-evaluation
what is conspicuously absent from reading principles?
how precisely to teach the reading process
greatly debated
phonics approach - breaking down words
whole-language approach - meaning + relationships betw words
phonics approach to learning to read
form of reading instruction that emphasizes segments of sounds in words in the learning of reading skills
whole-language approach
form of reading instruction that emphasizes communication over particular elements of reading + writing like spelling or sounds
improving one’s reading skills is a
lifelong process
early positive experience with reading associated with later academic achievement + enhanced vocational success
by middle childhood, majority of word’s children spending more time in schol than
any other setting outside of home
schools are
complex, multi-level institutions that affect development of whole child, including his/her cognitive-intellectual, socio-emotional, physical, + behavioural development
multiple levels forming causal chains of influences where each level affects each other
additional goals of leanring in school beyond reading, writing, + rithmatic
moral + character development, cultivation of certain mental habits like persistence + concentration, + promotion of social-emotional skills
social + emotional learning (SEL)
educational programs seeking to foster development of 5 non-subject competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, + responsible decision-making
movement with social-emotional goals at the heart
sel goals
1 - develop self-awareness + self-management skills to achieve school + life success (ID + manage one’s emotions + behaviour, recognize personal qualities + external supports, demonstrate skills related to achieving personal + academic goals)
2 - use social-awareness + interpersonal skills to establish + maintain positive relationships (recognize the feelings + perspectives of others, recognizes individ + group similarities + diffs, use communication + social skills to interact effectively with others, demonstrate ability to prevent, manage, + resolve interpersoanl conflicts in constructive ways.
3 - demonstrate decision-making skills + responsible behaviours in personal, shcool, + community contexts (consider ethical, safety, + societal factors in making decisions, apply decision-making skills to deal responsibilty with daily academic + social situaitons, contribute to well-being of one’s school + community)
metacognitive goals
promoting certain habits of mind
ways of thinking + reasoning that support leanrign
maintaining concentration + using strategies to monitor progress + revise one’s approach when needed
elementary school years
5-10 yrs
begin receiving formal evaluations of their performance
2 contrasting achievement gaols espoused by teachers
mastery goals - focus on self-improvement + skill develpment
performance goals - focus on ability level + competition among peers
mastery goal
acheivement goal taht focuses on self-improvement + skill development while downplaying ability level + peer comparison
associated with intrinsic motivation + persistence in face of difficulty
performance goal
achievement goal that emphasizes ability level + competition among peers
racialized
people or communities that are treated poorly or experience violence bec of racism or a belief that they are inferior
students from asian countries tend to outperform
canadian students in science on standardized achievement tests
achievement test
measure of children’s knowledge about particular academic subjects, like reading, writing or mathematics
student success is affected by
parental expectations, cultural beliefs, + level of involvement
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social communication + interaction + repetitive behaviours
specific learning disorders
specific difficulty with ready, writing or math, that is indicated when academic funcitoning is substantially below what is expected for age, IQ, + schooling
fall within expected range for each domain of development
most commonly reading + writing
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
neurobehavioural disorder characterized by inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that emerges prior to 12 yrs + causes impairment in multiple contexts
continues thru adulthood - 84% persist to adulthood
may morph into feelings of restlessness rather than excessive gross motor activity
why is exercise for children more improtant than adults?
bec exercise initiates oxygenation, and children have less hemoglobin (O carrying molecs in blood) than adults, so children’s bodies are less efficient than adults’ at extracted oxygen so need exercise more to initiate that
children younger than __ have the highest hospitalization rates for asthma
5 yrs
asthma
chronic illness in which airways of lung constrict, resulting in dec airflow
most common causes of asthma
infection, allergies, exercise, weather conditions, + second-hand smoke
