Pathology Flashcards
All information that was taught to me while attending Vanier College's "Animal Health Technology" Program, located in St-Laurent Montreal.
What happens in a lesion
Abnormal structural and functional changes
How can you observe a lesion
May be observed by:Gross examinationMicroscopic examinationLaboratory methods
What are the three possible types of diagnoses
PresumptiveDefinitiveDifferential
What is a prognosis
A statement regarding the expected (estimated) outcome of the diseaseHopefully evidence-based
Why do we do necropsies
To identify the causes of the diseaseto identify cause of death
What are some causes of cell injury
HypoxiaPhysical agentsChemical agentsInfectious agents and their toxinsGenetic mutationsNutritional deficiencies and imbalancesAging
What can cause cell degeneration
Increase in water (hydropic degeneration)Increase in other substances(FatAmyloidOther)Can be seem macroscopically in microscopically
What is pyknosis
When nuclei is condensed and dense in dead cells
what is karyorrhexis
when nuclei breaks up into fragments
what is karyolysis
when the nuclei is dissolved
What are terms you use to describe necrosis of an organ or tissue
PaleSoftFriableSharply demarcated
What are the types of necrosis
coagulation necrosiscaseous necrosisliqufactivegangrenous
What species get coagulation necrosis
cows
Describe liqufactive necrosis
Mostly in central nervous systemRapid enzymatic dissolution
describe gangrenous necrosis
Typically further degraded by bacteria that liquefies (moist gangrene – typically saprophytic bacteria) or produces gas (gas gangrene – typically Clostridium).Dry gangrene – ischemia, mommification
What can cause atrophy
Deficient nutritionDecreased workloadDisuseDenervationPressureLoss of endocrine stimulation
What are types of cell adaptation
AtrophyHypertrophyHyperplasiaMetaplasia
What is metaplasia
When one cell type is replaced by another “more useful”Epithelium of trachea: cilliated squamousVitamin A deficiency in birdsCan be reversible or can progress to neoplasia
What does intracellular accumulation show
Symptom of dysfuntionNormal, in excessAbnormal (endogenous or exogenous)Pigment
What are the endogenous pigments
MelaninHemoglobin Derivatives (bilirubin, porphyrin)
what are the exogenous pigments
carbon (anthracosis)tattoossilica (silicosis)
What is inflammation
Mechanism with a protective biological purpose:To dilute, isolate and eliminate cause of injuryWell organized cascade of fluid and cellular changesCan be harmful
What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation
RednessHeatSwellingPain
Describe acute inflammation
Short duration (few hours to few days)Mostly fluid changes with neutrophilsFollowed by repair and healing
Describe chronic inflammation
Weeks to months (to years)Mostly lymphocytes and macrophagesOften fibrosis and granulation tissueCan be secondary to acute inflammation or direct (mycobacterium, foreign material)
What is serous exudates
Low in proteins, clotting factors and cellsBlisters from burns, acute allergic responses
Describe mucous exudates
Fluid containing an abundance of mucus and mucin (from a mucus membrane)Chronic allergies (chronic asthma)Autoimmune GI diseases
Describe fibrinous exudate
Fluid with high concentration of plasma proteinsBut low leukocytes
Describe purulent/suppurative exudate
High proteinsHigh WBC
Describe the systemic reaction in inflammation
- release of cytokines (pyrogens) from wbc2. hypothalamus is triggered3. causes a fever
When does an abscess occur
Occurs when acute inflammation fails to rapidly eliminate stimulus.
What is an abscess
Enzymes from neutrophils liquefy affected tissue and neutrophils pusParticularly myeloperoxidase
What species lacks myeloperoxidase
rabbits and reptiles
Describe the difference between acute and chronic inflammation
Cells as opposed to fluid
What is a particular feature of chronic inflammation
granulomas
What is equine proud flesh
hypertrophic scar
Describe equine proud flesh
Exuberant proliferation of fibroblats and collagenNot well understoodDisregulation of cytokines & Growth factors most likely
Describe IBD
Idiopathic. Classified by the region of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) affected and by the predominant inflammatory cell type. Lymphocytic-plasmacytic inflammation is most commonly found, followed by eosinophilic inflammation. IBD is believed to be immune-mediated in origin.normal intestinal mucosa serves as a barrier and controls exposure of antigens to the GI lymphoid tissue (GALT). GALT generates appropriate immune responses (tolerance of harmless antigens).IBD develops when there is a break-down in this process and inappropriate immune responses occur.
Describe the components of the heart
÷ Pericardium÷ Myocardium÷ Conduction system÷ Endocardium & Valves
Describe the components of the heart vessels
÷ Arteries (distribution) ÷ Veins (collection)÷ Capillaries÷ Lymphatic
How is fluid distribution and homeostasis maintained
Physical barriersConcentration GradientPressure Gradient
What is edema
Accumulation of excess interstitial fluid
What are the barrier problems
increased permeability
What enzymes are associated with inflammation
histamine and bradykinin
What can cause barrier problems
inflammation, damage and immune mediated
What causes edema
infectious (tick born disease, FIP, leptospirosis, etc)immune mediated diseasetoxins
What causes hydrostatic pressure problems
portal hypertensionlocalized obstructionfluid overload
What does hydrostatic pressure mean
increased pressure
what causes oncotic pressure problems
decreased albumin (production or losses)
What are common fluid distribution problems
Barrier ProblemsPressure ProblemsDecreased lymphatic drainage
Where can edema be located
¡ Alveolar lumen¡ Thoracic cavity¡ Pericardial sac¡ Abdominal cavity ¡ Subcutaneous
Describe the appearance of edema and the histological appearance
Clear to slightly yellowtransuadate (low protein and low cells)
Describe physical disruption that cause hemorrhage
traumaerosionneoplastic invasionfungi
What minor defects that could cause hemorrhage
endotoxemia/infectious agentstoxinsimmune-complexes
What can cause hemorrhage
Physical disruptionminor defectsthrombocytopeniacoagulation factor deficiency
What is thrombosis
Formation of inappropriate clot of fibrin and/or platelets along with other blood elements on the wall of a blood vessel / lymphatic / heart.
What is a thrombosis called when it occurs in the lumen
thromboembolism
What can cause endothelial injury/vasculitis
¡ Infectious (ex herpes virus, salmonella, aspergillus)¡ Immune-mediated ¡ Toxins
What can cause an alteration in blood flow
¡ Mechanical÷ (GDV, external compression) ¡ Cardiac disease¡ Hypovolemia
What can cause hypercoagulability
¡ Inflammation¡ Diabete¡ Renal disease¡ Neoplasia¡ Hepatic disease ¡ Cushing’s¡ Hypothyroidism ¡ Heartworm
What are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the renal arteries
decrease in renal function, proteinuria and hematuria oranuria if bilateral
what are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the pulmonary arteries
¡ acute respiratory compromise and a ventilation-perfusion mismatch that can be mild or subclinical depending on the degree of embolization
what are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the mesenteric arteries
¡ gastrointestinal signs and abdominal pain
what are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the distal limb arteries
¡ pain, hardening of the musculature (tetany), and cyanosis
What are the three types of shock
¡ Cardiogenic¡ Hypovolemic¡ Blood maldistribution(÷ Septic÷ Anaphylactic ÷ Neurogenic)
What is cariogenic shock
Failure of the heart to pump adequate amount of blood ÷ Arrhythmias÷ Cardiomyopathy÷ Pericardial tamponade÷ Anesthesia
How is cardiogenic shock characterized
Loud murmurs, tachycardia or bradycardia, arrrhythmias, and weak heart sounds
What is hypovolemic shock
¡ Reduced circulating blood volume ÷ Fluid loss: vomiting, diarrhea, burns ÷ Blood loss (>35%)
How is hypovolemic shock characterized
tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, and tachypnea
What is blood maldistribution
¡ Pooling of blood in peripheral tissues from vasodilation
what is anaphylactic shock
¡ Widespread mast cell degranulation ¡ USUALLY CAUSED BY: Vaccine, insect/plant, drugs
What is neurogenic shock
¡ Autonomic nerve discharge ¡ CAUSED BY: Electrocution, stress, fear
What is septic shock
¡ Infectious organism released inflammation mediator
What is congestive heart failure
Inability of the heart to maintain normal ¡ systemic blood pressure¡ normal cardiac output (normal tissue blood flow) ¡ normal filling pressure
Why does congestive heart failure occur
results from severe heart disease
What does right sided heart failure cause
¡ Hepatomegaly & splenomegaly ¡ Ascites
What does left sided heart failure cause
Pulmonary congestion and edema
What can cause pericardial effusion
¡ Cardiac hemangiosarcoma÷ Highly malignant ¡ Idiopathic÷ Golden Retriever ¡ Acute vs Chronic¡ Pericardiocenthesis
Describe dilated cardiomyopathy
¡ Large breed dog (e.g. Doberman, Irish Wolfhound)¡ Familial pattern¡ Etiology not well understood¡ Adult onset÷ May have murmur, arrhythmias, tachycardia¡ Taurine-deficient cats
Describe myocardium
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy¡ Main Coons¡ Etiology not completely clear¡ Young adult, middle-age cat÷ Mostly asymptomatic with murmur of gallop¡ Associated with arterial thromboembolism¡ Hyperthyroidism can cause a form of DCM (reversible)
Describe arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy of the boxer
¡ Ventricular arrhythmias, syncope, sudden death¡ Familial disease÷ Not well understood, difficult to breed out
Describe sick sinus syndrome
¡ West Highland white terrier, Miniature schnauzer, Americancocker spaniel, Boxer, Dachshund, Pug¡ Idiopathic¡ Adult onset÷ Most of these dogs show overt clinical signs (syncope, episodicweakness) at the time of diagnosis¡ Pacemaker
Describe myxomatous valvular degeneration
¡ Progressive degeneration of the atrioventricular valves¡ Older dogs¡ Small- to medium-size breeds (Papillon, Poodle, Chihuahua,Dachshund, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel)¡ Slow progression to heart failure¡ Progressive murmur
Describe patent ductus arteriosus
¡ Mostly dogs¡ Congenital, can be genetic¡ Female; pomeranian, poodle (proved heritable cause), Keeshond, Bichon frise, Chihuahua, Maltese, Shetland sheepdog¡ Continuous murmur¡ Sx or Coil
Describe valve stenosis
¡ Pulmonary valve (smaller breeds)¡ Aortic valve (larger breeds) ¡ Loud murmur¡ Not as easy to correct if severe
describe fibrocartilaginous embolism
¡ Vascular thrombosis and infarction of the spinal cord¡ Sudden onset, usually one side worst¡ Non-chondrodystrophoid¡ If deep pain sensation remains, many animals will recover useful spinal function
describe intestinal lymphangiectasia
Dilatation of lymphatic vessels and obstruction of normallymph flow.¡ Intestinal lymphatic dysfunction leads to leakage of protein- rich lymph into the intestinal lumen.÷ Common causes of protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) in dogs¡ Primary: idiopathic¡ Secondary:÷ Inflammatory disease ÷ Neoplasia÷ Heart failure
What are the signs of intestinal lymphangiectasia
÷ vomiting, diarrhea (usually small bowel), weight loss, lethargy, anorexia÷ peripheral edema, abdominal distension from ascites
How do you treat intestinal lymphangiectasia
diet change, anti-inflammatories
what is the prognosis for intestinal lymphangiectasia
prognosis is variable
What causes a rupture of the thoracic duct
¡ Cause chylothorax¡ Cytological aspect:¡ Often idiopathic (other: neoplasia, HWD, heart failure)
What is a portosystemic shunt
¡ Anomalous vessels that allow normal portal blood (from GIT) to pass directly into the systemic circulation without first passing through the liver¡ Congenital or acquired (older)¡ Failure to thrive, poor weight gain, and small body stature ÷ Seizure-like episodes after a meal¡ Some can be treated with surgery
What does carcinogenic mean
Agent that causes mutations resulting in tumor formation
What is oncology
The study of neoplasia (diagnosis, treatment)
What are the characteristics of benign neoplasm
Well differentiatedThe cells resemble closely the parent tissueLittle or no anaplasiaSlow growthNo basement membrane invasionDo not metastasizeOften encapsulated
How can a benign neoplasm cause disease
By compressing sensitive tissuesBy being metabolically activeBy malignant transformation
What are the characteristics of malignant neoplasm
Some lack of differentiationAnaplasiaRapid GrowthMany mitotic figuresAbnormal mitotic figuresLocally invasiveInfiltrative growthFrequent metastasisUsually no capsule
What are some names of epithelial tumors
AdenomaPapillomaCarcinomaAdenocarcinoma
What are some names of mesenchymal tumors
Tissue -omaTissue -sarc0ma
How does a tumor metastasise
Invasion of host tissueDissemination through vascular systemImplantation on new surfaces
What are some diagnostic methods for neoplasm
radiologycomputed tomographyultrasoundMRINuclear MedicinecytologyDNA, RNA analysis
What do you do radiography for
screening test
why do you use computed tomography
to characterize and localize lesionidentify metastasissurgery and radiotheraphy planning
Why do we use ultrasound
Abdomen: internal structure of organs and to image body cavities when effusionAssess vasculatureUltrasound-guided sampling
Why do we use nuclear medicine
administration of radioisotopes
What are the advantages to cytology
Relatively low risk of procedures to the animalLower cost compared with biopsySpeed with which results can be obtainedBest to evaluate cellular criteria (ex lymphoma)
what are the disadvantages to cytology
Small sample (may not be representative)No tissue architecture
Why do we do DNA and RNA analysis
Study mutations to help classify tumorsDiagnostic utility (lymphocytosis)Can help guide therapy
Why do we do grading
Done to predict/classify the behavior of the tumor.Different criteria depending on tumor type.Done by pathologist
Why do we do staging
Describing or classifying a cancer based on the extent of cancer in the body. Often based on the size of the tumour, presence of metastasisStages are based on specific factors for each type of cancer
What are some clinical effects of neoplasm
The pressure exerted by the neoplasm on the surrounding tissues will cause the following effects:PainVessels blockageDyspnea, hypoxiaCompromise organ function
What is cachexia
Weakness and wasting of the body due to severe chronic illnessthat cannot be reversed nutritionallyInflammatory cytokines involved
What causes anemia
Suppression of erythropoietin synthesis in kidneysHemorrhagesDecreased erythropoiesisErythrocyte fragmentation
What causes hypercalcemia
Tumor cell secretionsOsteolytic metastases of neoplasms
What are some causes of cancer
Genetic Immunosuppression Chemical carcinogens Viral carcinogens Physical carcinogens Chronic tissue injury
What are some environmental factors that cause cancer
Cigarette smokeUltraviolet irradiationUrbanizationDiet
What are the intrinsic factor that cause cancer
Oxygen free radicals that result from chronic inflammationIntrinsic errors in DNA replicationevery time a cell divides, each daughter cell is likely to carry at least a few hundred mutations in its DNA Most are silent, but accumulate
describe heritable cancer syndromes
Cancers with clear heritable basisNot many described in veterinary literature
Describe genetic Influence in Sporadic Cancers
It is Why not all smokers get lung cancer
Describe Presence of distinct heritable traits that segregate with common cancer phenotypes in dogs (animals)
Will not cause cancer directly (unlike heritable syndrome)Histiocytic sarcoma in Bernese Mountain dogs
What are the characteristics of the chemical extrinsic factors
Very wide varietyMost bind covalently to DNADirect carcinogenIndirect:Require metabolic activation
what are the characteristics of the physical extrinsic factors
Sunlightfacial, aural, and nasal planum SCC in white or partially white cats and may also play a similar role in some cutaneous SCC lesions in dogTrauma/InflammationChronic keratitisFeline vaccine associated sarcomaRadiationAt site of radiation therapySurgery/ImplantsAnecdotal reports
what are the characteristics of the hormonal extrinsic factors
Canine mammary cancermost common neoplasm of female intact dogsSimilar in cats, but not as well documentedPerianal adenomaoccurs primarily in intact male dogs, whereas perianal adenocarcinoma occurs in both intact and castrated malesResolves after castrationProstate cancerneutered dogs have been shown to be at increased risk
Describe the papilloma virus
Usually multiple lesions affecting young dogsMost regress without txt
Describe the feline leukaemia virus
Still much to discoverOnly 20% of cats persistently infected with FeLV develop lymphoid cancerTwenty years ago, 70% of lymphomas in cats were believed to be caused by FeLV
describe the FIV virus
neoplasms most commonly linked to FIV infectionLymphomas and myeloid tumors (myelogenous leukemia, myeloproliferative disease) few carcinomas and sarcomas Lentiviruses such as FIV not oncogenic in themselvesmarkedly immunosuppressiveaffect normal immunosurveillance of cancerous cells
Describe canine hemangiosarcoma
Highly malignant neoplasm that originates from vascular endotheliumAffects middle-age to older dogs, large breedPrimary tumor site:SpleenHeart (right atrium)SubcutisLiverMetastasis:lungs, liver, mesentery, and omentum (hematogenous)Direct spreadFeatures helpful for diagnosis (pertinent staging/grading, etc):Often morphologically altered RBCs are present, such as schistocytes, acanthocytes, and poikilocytesCan present as acute abdomen or cardiac tamponadeOther (complications, prognosis, etc)Highly metastaticWatch for DICIf Splenic, need to remove spleen, but prognosis still poor (better with chemo - 141–179 days)
What is the definition of canine lipoma
A benign subcutaneous mass with a soft texture usually localized.
Who does canine lipoma affect
Most commonly dogs, rare in cats and horsesBreed predispositionsHypothyroid dogs
What are the clinical signs of canine lipoma
Palpation of small, soft mass under the skinShould not cause discomfort to the patientUsually around abdominal region but can be anywhereTendency to develop multiple
How do you diagnose canine lipoma
Fine needle aspirationSurgical removal and histopathology
How do you treat canine lipoma
Surgical removal can be done but it is not necessary unless it is restricting movement
Describe basal cell tumor
Has many specific namesMid to old dog and catMostly on head and neck
Describe follicular tumor
Often inflammationOlder dogsCan sometimes squeeze out material
Describe sebaceous adenoma
Cauliflower-like tumorOlder cats & dogsideally should be removedmalignant version exists
describe soft tissue sarcoma
General name for a number of mesenchymal tumorsMuscle, adipose, neurovascular, fascial, and fibrous tissue Mostly malignant (see grade)Similar pathologic appearance and clinical behavior Solitary tumor in older dogs and catsSkin and subcutaneous sites are most common
describe the soft tissue sarcoma
Tend to appear as pseudoencapsulated soft-to-firm tumors, but have poorly defined histologic margins or infiltrate through and along fascial planes, and they are locally invasive.Local recurrence after conservative surgical excision is commonTend to metastasize hematogenously in up to 20% of cases.Regional lymph node metastasis is unusualHistopathologic grade is predictive of metastasis, and resected tumor margins predict local recurrence.Measurable or bulky (>5 cm in diameter) tumors generally have a poor response to chemotherapy and radiation therapy (RT).
describe equine malignant melanoma
80% of grey horses over the age of 15 will develop at least one melanoma tumor during their lifetimeCan be fatalThere is no available effective chemotherapy for horses.Tumor of the melanocytes, the cells that produce skin pigment.Most common location: underside of the tail, the perineal and peri-anal regions, penis and sheath in malesCan also be found: ear margins, anywhere on the head, jugular region, new or on the parotid salivary glandIt is also possible that the melanomas can spread internally, most commonly to the serosal surfaces of the liver, spleen, and lungsCan be hard or soft, and appear either solitary or in clustersStart off under the skin until they surface. They can become ulcerated and/or infected
How do melanoma’s develop
1- Melanomas develop slowly over years, and remain benign 10-20 years, without metastasis. Most common.2- Benign melanomas that exist for months or years and suddenly develop malignant characteristics and spread rapidly externally and/or internally.3- Melanomas are malignant from the start. Rare.
where can malignant melanoma metastasis to
Metastasis: lymph nodes, liver, spleen, skeletal muscle, lungs, and surrounding or within blood vessels throughout the body
Describe feline oral squamous cell carcinoma
Most common oral malignancy in the cat Can originates from the jaw bones or the tongueOwners may find a mass in their cat’s mouth which occurs mostly in the back of the mouth or under/on the tongueIt has an ability to grow invasively (locally), but does not tend to metastisizeCan be ulcerative or proliferativeNo breed/sex predisposition, usually affects middle-aged cats
what are the symptoms of the feline oral squamous cell carcinoma
mass that can be ulcerativedroolingweight loss, halitosisdifficulty eatingbloody discharge from the mouth
What are the environmental factors that contribute to oral SCC
Second Hand Smokeflea collarsDiet
How do you diagnose oral SCC
Often not diagnosed until the tumour is advancedOral examinationAn ulcerated, red, locally invasive lesion is highly suggestive of an oral tumor Loose teeth can suggest bone structure is affectedBloodwork to check overall healthRadiographsCan reveal invasion of underlying boneBiopsy of abnormal tissueUsed to confirm the presence of SCC and help stage the tumor Important to obtain a large sample since feline oral SCC are frequently infected, necrotic, or inflamed.
Describe the treatment of feline oral SCC
Surgical removal is possible but can be difficult due to the aggressiveness and invasiveness that typically involves the bone. This means part of the jaw would need to be removedRadiation therapy or chemotherapy alone is generally ineffective in the managing oral SCC. The combination of the two can improve quality of life and overall survival time. Pain medication can help reduce discomfort associated with the tumor.
Describe the prognosis of feline oral SCC
Extremely poor1 year survival rate is less than 10% even with combinations of radiation therapy and chemotherapyMost cats are euthanized withing 1-3 months because they cannot eat or drink and poor quality of life
What are the malignant oral tumors
squamous cell carcinomamelanocyte tumorfibrosarcoma
What are the benign oral tumors
epulides
How do you treat oral tumors
Surgery and RT are the most common treatments used for the local control of oral tumors.
What are the symptom of oral melanoma in dogs
HalitosisDroolingBleeding from the mouthChange in food preferenceChange in chewing habitsDecrease in appetiteChronic coughingDifficulty swallowingWeight loss
What causes canine oral melanoma
idiopathic
How do yu diagnose canine oral melanoma
Physical exam: Blood tests, UA, X-rays, abdominal ultrasound, MRI, fluid biopsyOlder dogs will have dark pigmented areas on the tongue, mouth and gums. Look for anything unusual in the mouth pigmented or non-pigmented fleshy masses. Metastasis: Head, neck, lymph nodes, liver, lungs, kidneys and sometimes bone tissue
how do you treat canine oral melanoma
Removal of tumor: Sometimes hard to completely remove because it may spread to the bone in the mouth. Can return even if completely removed. Resistant to chemo.Radiation: Remission in 70% of patients. Reoccurrence and spread still possible.New vaccine restricted availability.
what is the prognosis from canine oral melanoma
5-7 months, but; Stage 1: 1 yearStage 2: 6 monthsStage 3: 3 monthsStage 4: 1 month
describe nasopharyngeal polyps in cats
Nonneoplastic, inflammatory massesoriginating from either the middle ear or eustachian tubecan extend into the external ear canal or nasopharynxYounger catsIdiopathic
Describe the tumors of the liver
Primary tumors rarePrognosis variableMetastasis are frequentNodular hyperplasiacommon diagnosis in older dogsbenign and probably does not represent a preneoplastic lesion
describe feline intestinal lymphoma
Can present as:a purely intestinal infiltrationor a combination of intestinal, mesenteric lymph nodes and liver involvementTumors can be solitary but more commonly diffuse throughout the intestinesCommonOlder cats, mostly small intestineOften preceded by IBD
Describe perianal adenomas in animals
Benign sex-hormone dependent (spayed female, intact male)
Describe apocrine gland adenocarcinoma
Tiny primary tumor (often pea-size)About 50% metastasis at diagnosisHypercalcemia (PU/PD)
Describe canine chondrosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma is a form bone cancer in dogsThe cancer starts in the cartilage and connective tissue found in joints, and/or ribs and nose. It can cause bones to fracture easily as the tumour invades the bones. It is mostly common in older dogs
How do you treat canine chondrosarcoma
Better prognosis if caught early and treated aggressively. Amputation of the affected limb if no metastasis has occurred. Radiation therapy if located in the nose. Removal of the affected rib and portion of the lung if tumour is on rib followed by chemotherapy. Inoperable tumours are treated with radiotherapy to try to prolong the life span.Surgery is the only known affective treatment.
How do you diagnose canine chondrosarcoma
XraysCBCLymph biopsyBiopsy of tumourCT scan
describe canine osteosarcoma
Most common bone tumor found in dogs5% of all canine tumorsMalignantCan effect any breedMost common in large or giant breeds.Middle aged or elderly
What are the primary osteosarcoma tumor sites
Bordering the scapula Tarsus CarpusStifleCommonly near growth plates
Where does canine osteosarcoma metastasize to
Lungsother bones lymph nodes
What are the risk factors associated with canine osteosarcoma
Slightly more in females than malesHigher in castrated males and spayed females (compared to intact)
What are the symptoms of canine osteosarcoma
LamenessPeriosteal inflammationMicrofracturesPathologic factorsSwelling
how do you diagnose canine osteosarcoma
Orthopedic, neurologic and physical examinationX-rays (if lesion is in question – do a biopsy)Biopsy through aspirationBone scan
how do you treat canine osteosarcoma
Aggressive treatment planRadiation therapy – palliative care not curativeCurative options include a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapyStandard treatment is amputation
what is the prognosis for osteosarcoma
Very good prognosis with amputation: resolves 100% of the pain
What is the aetiology and pathogenesis of insulinomas
Insulinomas are tumors of the pancreatic β cells (type of islet cell) which produce insulin These tumors cause increased insulin production which result in hypoglycemiaThe tumors respond to normal provocative stimuli that encourage a rise in insulin, but fail to respond to negative feedback when the insulin levels are too highInsulinomas are very common in middle-aged and older ferrets ( greater than 3 years of age)
What are the clinical signs of insulinomas
Hypoglycemia will result in neurological signs such as mental dullness, sluggishness, lethargy, ataxia, seizures and comaProlonged, severe hypoglycemia can result in cerebral hypoxia and cerebral lesionsOther possible symptoms are nausea (which can cause the ferret to paw at its mouth), depression, hypersalivation, staggering, tachycardia, hypothermia, tremors, muscle fasciculations, nervousness and irritabilityOwners may report that the ferret tends to sleep more frequently, be difficult to wake up, or stops in its tracks with a dazed appearanceIt is important to note that these symptoms can come and go as blood sugar levels rise and drop
how do you diagnose insulinomas
One of the most common illnesses diagnosed in ferretsWill be diagnosed using clinical signs, history, physical exam, blood glucose levels and insulin levels
How do you treat ferret insulinoma
Surgery to remove the tumors (the tumors often grow back so several surgeries will likely be required)Medication to manage insulin and glucagon levels (the dose will need to be increased as the illness progresses)Diet is another huge component to managing this disease. All ferrets should be fed a high-protein ferret food, but this is especially important in sick ferrets
what is the prognosis for ferret insulinomas
Most insulinomas are eventually fatalThis is either because of hypoglycemic induced complications or because the tumors have spread to other organsAll that can be done is attempt to maintain a good quality of life for the ferret for as long as possible
describe pituitary adenoma
Common pituitary neoplasia of older dogsMost common cause of cushing in horses.Pituitary tumors account for approximately 15% of intracranial tumors Frequently associated with either: -hyperadronocorticism - Diabetes Insipitus
What are the clinical signs of pituitary adenoma
Non-neurological: weight loss, PU/PD, lethargy Neurological signs: cranial compression is rare but pressure on the optic chiasma may cause ocular changes
how do you diagnose pituitary adenoma
imagining with CT or MRI may be difficult, but a definitive diagnosis is usually done with a intraoperative or postmortem biopsyDifferential diagnosis: lymphoma, hypothalamic-pituitary trauma, dorsally expanding cysts, congenital malformations, inflammatory granuloma, etc.
how do you treat pituitary adenoma
corrective hormonal therapy or hypophysectomy (removal of the pituitary gland)
what is the prognosis for pituitary adenoma
Prognosis depends upon the type and size of the tumour.The prognosis for a pituitary tumor (if the client is willing to do treatments) is usually fairly good as the treatments are quite effective.In serious unnoticed cases The entire hypothalamus may become compressed and replaced by the tumor.
How can you determine whether cushings disease is caused by the pituitary or the adrenal adenoma
If there is no change in Cortisol levels being released by the adrenal gland, then it is an Adrenal Adenoma.If there is suppression of the adrenal gland, then the Cushing’s is being caused by a Pituitary Adenoma.
Describe pheochromocytoma
Adrenal gland tumorOlder dogsSecretes catecholamines (episodic)episodic collapse, panting, anxiety, restlessness, exercise intoleranceMalignant (40% metastasize)Good prognosis is no metastasis
Describe thyroid gland adenomas in dogs
Often benign adenoma found at necropsyMalignant:If clinical signs of hyperthyroidism (most non-functional)Older dogsFrequent metastasis
Describe hyperthyroidism
Multinodular adenomatous hyperplasiaCarcinoma rare
describe insulinoma
Pancreatic Beta-Cell TumorsHallmark of insulinomanormal or elevated blood insulin concentration in the presence of low blood glucose levelsOften malignant50% metastasisMedium and large breed dogs, older
What are the clinical signs of insulinoma
weakness, ataxia, collapse, disorientation, behavioral changes, and seizures
How do you treat insulinoma
Medical and surgical treatmentprognosis for dogs with insulinomas is good in the short term but guarded to poor in the long term
What is a gastrinoma
Often pancreatic, secretes gastrinGastric acid hypersecretionMiddle-aged dogs and older catsNon-specific clinical signsvomiting and weight lossmelena, abdominal pain, anorexia, hematemesis, hematochezia, and diarrheaOften metastasis at diagnosis
What is a transitional cell carcinoma
Fairly common malignant tumorLocated in the trigone region of the bladder15% metastasis at diagnosis30% of dogs have abnormal cells in urine
What are the signs of the transitional cell carcinoma
hematuria, dysuria, pollakiurialess commonly: lameness caused by bone metastasis
What is canine lymphoma
Is a common type of cancer in dogs. Unregulated growth of malignant lymphocytes that often affects; lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver, and spleen.Can also be seen in the eyes, skin, and gastrointestinal tract.It can be small cell lymphoma; progresses very slowly and is difficult to treat. There is also large cell lymphoma; progresses quickly but responds very well to chemotherapy.
What are the 5 stages of canine lymphoma
Stage I: Ailment restricted to a single lymph node.Stage II: Regional lymphadenopathy (restricted to one side of diaphragm).Stage III: Generalized lymphadenopathy (enlargement of lymph nodes)Stage IV: Enlargement of the liver and spleen or hepatosplenomegaly (with or without lymphadenopathy).Stage V: Bone marrow, CNS (Central Nervous System), or involvement of other extranodal sites.
what are the symptoms of canine lymphoma
Firm, enlarged, non-painful lymph nodes. Other common symptoms include loss of appetite, lethargy, weight loss, swelling of the face or legs (edema), and occasionally increased thirst and urination.
how do we diagnose canine lymphoma
Best way is to perform a biopsy; you are able to differentiate between T and B cells with special stain because they respond differently to treatment.
how do we treat canine lymphoma
Most effective therapy is chemotherapy. In some situations, surgery or radiation therapy may also be recommended.
what is the prognosis for canine lymphoma
Depends on what type of lymphoma the dog has and the type of chemotherapy. The average for multicentric lymphoma is 9-13 months.
describe leukemia
Many different types of leukemiaMyeloid: white blood cellsErythroid: RBCAll from bone marrowCan be acute or chronicAcute: high cell counts, immature cellsChronic: moderate cell counts, mature cellsBone marrow examination important
what are the signs of multiple myeloma
Bleeding (nose, gums)LamenessPU/PDElevated globulins
describe the prognosis of multiple myeloma
Dog: good for initial control of tumor and a return to good quality of life (median 540 days)Cats: 4 months
describe plasmacytoma
Local & Benign form of plasma cell tumorOlder dogsLimb, head, lipsConservative surgical excision
describeb mast cell tumors in dogs
Mast cells are found in the connective tissues mostly in the vessels and nerves that are located close to the external surfaces.Boxers, bulldogs, pugs, and Boston terriers appear to be more susceptible to mast cell tumors than other breeds. Dogs affected with a mast cell tumor are around 8 years old but studies show that there has been cases of mast cell tumor seen in less than 1 year old dogs
where is the primary tumor site for mastocytoma
skin, nose, mouth, lungs
describe the metastasis of mast cells
Depending on the stages, stage 2 will metastasize into surrounding lymph nodes and stage 4 will metastasize to other organs.
How do you diagnose mast cell tumors
Fine needle aspiration CytologyBiopsysurgical removalradiation therapy (if metastasis occurs)
What is the prognosis for a mast cell tumor
The prognosis will depend on the growth of the tumorIf the tumor grows more than 1 cm per week, the animal only has 25% chances of surviving more than 30 weeksIf the tumor is located at one specific area and does not grow rapidly for several months, it is known to be benign
What are some complications associated with mast cell tumor
In some cases, you might noticed an enlargement of the lymph nodes located around the area of the tumor Some masses can be inflammed and itchy due to high level of histamines in the actual tumor Enlarged liver and enlarged spleen are characteristic of wide-spread mast cell cancer
What is a thymoma
Older (9-10 yo) dogs (and cats)Neoplasms of thymic epithelial cellsBenign vs malignant based on surgery
What are the clinical signs of a thymoma
Lethargy, coughing, tachypnea, and dyspnea
What can a thymoma cause in some animals
myasthenia gravis (in 40% of dogs)
What is myasthenia gravis
Autoimmune disease of the neuromuscular junction causing muscular weakness and excessive fatiguabilityMegaoesophagus (regurgitation)3% of dogs with MG have a cranial mediastinal mass
What are histiocytic diseases
Neoplasia of macrophage (and related cells)
What is a histiocytoma
Nodular skin tumor of young dogs (head/neck)Very commonBenign, regresses spontaneously
What is a histolytic sarcoma
Bernese Mountain dogs, rottweilers, retrieversSpleen, liver, lungsVery poor prognosis
Describe mammary tumors in dogs
Common in intact femalesHeterogenous group of tumors (10+)More research neededImpacts the course of action/treatmentMetastasis common
Describe mammary tumors in cats
Siamese cat younger, overrepresentedIntact catsThe vast majority of feline mammary tumors are malignant (85% to 95%)with an aggressive biologic behavior, lymphatic invasion and lymph node metastasis are more common at the time of initial diagnosis than in dogsNeeds aggressive surgery
Describe a canine prostate tumor
Older dogs, intact and neutered (slightly more)At the time of diagnosisMost tumor are locally invasive High propensity for regional and distant metastasisBones (lumbar vertebra and pelvis)
what are the signs of a canine prostate tumor
hematuria, dysuria, stranguria, dyschezia, tenesmus
What are the components of the immune system
Cellsrecognition moleculessoluble factors
Describe nonspecific immunity
First line of defence, non specific
Describe the anatomic and physiologic portion of nonspecific immunity
skin, mucosa, ciliastomach pH, Body Temperature
Describe the cellular portion of the nonspecific immunity
phagocytic cells, NK cells
describe the molecular portion of the nonspecific immunity
inflammationcomplement system
Where do the cells from the nonspecific immunity come from
recruited by the molecules of inflammation
What is the function of the cells of the nonspecific immunity
ingest + destroy pathogensneutralize toxins
Describe the self/nonself identification by neutrophils, monocytes, tissue macrophages, NK cells
Express membrane receptors that innately recognize several pathogens (pathogen recognition receptors)Recognizes PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns)Also DAMPS (damage associated molecular patterns)
Describe the cell mediated specific immunity
T-Lymphocytes for intracellular pathogensB-Lymphocytes for extracellular pathogens and toxins
Describe the characteristics of specific immunity
SpecificityDiversityMemorySelf/non-self recognitionMHC molecules
Describe T Lymphocytes
Contains T Cell ReceptorTCR can only recognize antigen in combination with a MHC molecule. Each T Lymphocyte expresses a different TCR
What is the CD4 T Lymphocyte
Helper T lymphocytesRecognizes MHC class II: found on antigen presenting cells
What is the CD8 T Lymphocyte
Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes: Recognizes MHC class I: found on all nucleated cells
What is a signal 2 lymphocyte:
important for tolerance and auto-immunity
What do T-Lymphocytes do when activated
Expand clonaldifferentiate into: Effector Cells or Memory cells
Describe the antigen receptor in B Lymphocytes
Membrane-bound immunoglobulin. The immunoglobulin gene can rearrange- antigen recognition diversity.
What happens to B Lymphocytes when activated
Expand clonallyDifferentiates into:Effector cells plasma cell (antibody secreting)Needs the action of T-helper lymphocyteMemory cells
What is the function of a macrophage
PhagocytosisAntigen presentation to T-LymphocyteMHC class II
What is the function of a dendritic cell
Very efficient antigen presenting cellCapture antigens in circulation and present to T-Lymphocytes in lymph nodes
Describe a Type 1 hypersensitivity
Immediate hypersensitivityMisdirected/innapropriate responseoccurs within minutes of exposure
Describe the type 1’s immediate hypersensitivity
IgE mediatedAgainst: Environmental antigens (allergens)Parasite antigen
What does a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction require
Need to be previously SENSITIZEDMediated by mast cells
What does mast-cell degranulation in a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction result in
VasodilationEdemaSmooth muscle contractionMucus productionInflammation
Describe the systemic reaction in a type 1 hypersensitivity
Anaphylaxis
Describe the localized type 1 hypersensitivity reaction
Skin, mucosa, GITAtopy, allergic rhinitis
What is allergic dermatitis
cutaneous manifestation of type I hypersensitivityInhalation, ingestion, percutaneous
What do you call an allergic dermatitis with a genetic predisposition
atopic dermatitis
Describe a flea bite hypersensitivity
Most common hypersensitivity in cats & dogsVery pruritic dermatitis (mostly on back)
What is urticaria and angiodema
Most often in horses and dogsMultifocal or localized areas of edemaUrticaria: superficialEdema: deep dermis and subcutis
What are the immunologic causes of Urticaria and Angioedema
food, drug, antisera, insect bites
what are the non immunologic causes of urticaria and angiodema
heat, exercise, stress
Describe a cytotoxic hypersensitivity
Development of antibodies against self cells or tissueMay be from self antigen or exogenous antigen adsorbed to self
What does a cytotoxic hypersensitivity cause
IMHA, ITP (cytotoxic)Myasthenia gravis (altered function)
What immune complexes are involved in a type 2 hypersensitivity
IgM and IgG
What does a type 2 hypersensitivity reaction require
a sensitized host
What enhanced phagocytosis of antigen by macrophages in type 2 hypersensitivity
opsonization by antibodies or complements
How can an antibody activate the complement system and what happens when it does it
Antibody can activate the complement system, via the classical pathway, resulting in the elaboration of inflammatory mediators
What can antibodies against cell receptors do
activate or inhibit cell function. ex: TSH
What is immune mediated hemolytic anemia
Common, life-threatening acute anemiaYoung middle-aged females, cocker spanielsUsually idiopathicInfection, drugs, neoplasia
What is neonatal isoerythrolysis
A form of IMHAColostrum derived maternal antibodiesAttacks newborn’s RBCCommon in horsesImmunosensitization of mother to incompatible blood type from stallion8-10h after birth up to 4-5 days
what is pemphigus (foliaceous)
Most common and milder form of pemphigusOften adverse reaction to drugsAutoantibodies against a protein in desmosomesPustules with acantholytic keratinocytes
What are three different type 2 hypersensitives
Immune Mediated Hemolytic AnemiaNeonatal isoerythrolysisPemphigus
Describe a type 3 hypersensitivity
Immune-complex hypersensitivityAntigen-antibody complexes that activate complement and cause damageSimilar to type IIType II: antigen directed against selfType III: antigen just get “stuck” to tissue
What happens when immune complexes are deposited into tissues
Activation of complement systemtissue DAmage
Why do antibody antigen complexes go wrong
Improper atb/ag ratioWeak, chronic atb responseToo many atb-ag complexes
What is type 3 hypersensitivity caused by
chronic/persistant infectionforeign antigen inhalation
Where do antibody-antigen complexes accumulate in
Blood vesselsSynovial membranesGlomeruliChoroid plexus (brain)
What is systemic lupus erythematous
Multiorgan disease (dogs; rarely cat & horse)Defective T-Lymphocyte suppression results in B-Lymphocyte hyperactivity
What are the predisposing factors for systemic lupus erythematous
GeneticsViral infectionHormonesUV light
Describe how systemic lupus erythematous affects the body
Formation of autoantibodies to a variety of antigens, including nucleic acidOrgan specific antigensClotting factorsCells (RBC, platelets, leukocytes)Main damage: atb-ag complexesMany tissue, notably skin (intensified by UV light)
What are the skin symptoms of systemic lupus erythematous
Local or generalizedErythema, depigmentation, alopecia, crusting
What are the systemic signs of systemic lupus erythematous
PolyarthritisFeverAnemia, thrombocytopeniaProteinuria
What causes equine infectious anemia
caused by the lentivirus
how does the lentivirus cause equine infectious anemia
infects monocytes and macrophages
what does equine infectious anemia do to the body
Immune-mediated (atb-atg complexes deposition)Decreased erythropoiesis
how do you diagnose equine infectious anemia
coggins test for diagnostic
describe a type 4 hypersensitivity
Delayed-type hypersensitivityCell mediated hypersensitivityInteraction between T-lymphocytes and specific antigensSensitized T-lymphocytesResponse is 24-48h after exposureGranuloma formationUnlike type I, II & III: NOT dependent on antibody
describe tuberculosis
Caused by acid-fast bacilli of the genus Mycobacterium. Chronic, debilitating diseaseOccasional acute, rapidly progressive course. Affects practically all species of vertebratesMycobacterium Tuberculosis and othersOften the body is unable to clear the infectionChronic Granuloma formation
Describe johne’s disease
Mycobacterium paratuberculosis.Chronic, contagious granulomatous enteritisOften in cattlePersistent diarrhea, progressive weight loss, debilitation, and eventually deathThickened and corrugated intestine with enlarged and edematous neighboring lymph nodesGranulomas
What is auto-immune thyroiditis
Chronic and progressive lymphocytic infiltration and subsequent destruction of the thyroid gland
Who is predisposed to getting auto-immune thyroiditis
Doberman Pinschers, Beagles, Golden Retrievers, and Akitas
What is special about auto-immune thyroiditis
Probably has both humoral (Type II - cytotoxic) and cell-mediated (Type IV - delayed) componentsMHC probably involved
What is bovine/canine leukocyte adhesion deficiency
Genetic, congenital anomaly of leukocytesPrevents leucocytes from migrating from the blood in the tissuesVery high neutrophiliaAnimals are highly susceptible to infectionDie very young
Describe feline infectious peritonitis
Mutation of benign enteric coronavirus to FIP virusInfects monocytes & macrophages and spreads through bloodType III (immune complex)VasculitisType IV (delayed) also likelyGranulomas
Describe keratitis sicca
Due to an aqueous tear deficiencyUsually results in persistent, mucopurulent conjunctivitis and corneal ulceration and scarringDogs, cats & horsesDogs: often autoimmune dacryoadenitis of both the lacrimal and nictitans glandsNot well understood
What causes infection
bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, prions
what are the steps of infection
Chronologic sequence of eventsPortal of entryRegulated by virulence factors
are most infectious agents targeting specific cells or organs
yes
How does the infectious agent get into the body
Mucosae (respiratory, alimentary, lower urinary, reproductive, ear/eye)Subcutaneous tissues
what are the bodies cells that help to stop infectious agents initial multiplication
Macrophage, lymphocytes, dendritic cells
where does the infectious agent go after initial multiplication
Then local (submucosa, subcutis), regional (lymph node), systemic spread
what does the mucus protective layer of the body do
Prevents direct adherenceBlocks/traps organismsCan facilitate action of phagocytesDelivers antigens to local lymphoid tissueKeeps antimicrobial substances and atb close to mucosa
what can cause changes in goblet cell function and chemical composition of mucus that can lower protection
DehydrationShippingHumidityVentilationWeather changes
how have microorganisms evolved to take advantage of our mucus protective layer
Source of food (carbohydrates, peptides)If able to colonize inner mucus: prevents expulsionCan specifically adhere to molecules in mucusMicrobial mucolysis ability is virulence factor
how do you ingest an infectious agent
via infectious fomites
where is the thickest layer of mucus protective layer
in the colon
where is the thinnest layer of the mucus protective layer
in the jejunum
what is located in the protective mucosal fluids
gastric acid, lyzozymes
describe inhaling a fomite
Nostrils Nasal turbinates, pharynx or lower airwaysDepends on size, shape, weightVirus > prions > bacteria > fungi > ProtozoaBUT mostly inhaled with fomites!Air turbulence in turbinates increases deposition
describe the mucuciliary apparatus
Biphasic mucus layerTip of cilia in gelNasal cavity & sinus:Moves downwardConductive respiratory:Moves upwardUltimately swallowedInjury to epithelial cells (influenza, rhino) can disrupt and cause secondary bacterial infections
describe infectious agent cutaneous penetration
Via abrasions, scratches, bite wounds, insect biteLimited range of host targets but limited defenses
describe the pathogenicity of the infectious agents
Regulated by virulence factorsIn bacterial genesTheir expression permits bacteria to Colonize mucosae, Infect cells,Grow and replicate,Cause cell death
what infectious agents have good motility
spirochetes
what infectious agents can digest the mucus layer
clostridium
describe colonization of an infectious agent
Adhesion of sufficient amount of bacteriaVia:Fimbria/PilusAdhesion moleculesNeeds to be faster than cell renewal
describe spreading of an infectious agent
SpreadingDestruction of collagen, tight junctions between cellsProvides safe spot for bacteria
describe the toxins released by infectious agents
Exotoxins (gram +), endotoxins (gram -) (LPS: lipopolysaccharide)Damages cells and extra-cellular matrixKills cells via cytolysis or activation of complement
since Viruses are unable to produce energy and contain a limited number of enzymes what are they considered
obligate intracellular parasites
how have viruses evolved
Have evolved to target specific cells in animals to sustain theirs needsNot as many virulence factornot as complex as bacteria.
describe permissive viral target cells
Allows for viral replication
describe non permissive viral target cells
no replication – used as reservoirCan become permissive (ex with cell maturation or activation)
describe step 1 of the viral replication cycle
- Attachement and EntryDetermines which organs are infectedViruses bind to normally expressed receptors
describe step 2 of the viral replication cycle
- Replication stageHow much of the cell is hijackedOrganelles, genome, otherHow much cell dysfunction, cell death
describe step 3 of the viral replication cycle
- SheddingHow the virus exits determines cell’s fateIf cell killed or lysed causes more severe disease
describe parvovirus viral replication
Infects intestinal crypt epithelial cellsReceptors on basolateral surfaceSo coming in from circulation, not directly from intestineM-cell Peyer’s patch circulationNot most direct; prevents contact with protective mechanism, tight junctions
how do non-enveloped viruses attach to cells
They attach to host cells using a protein coat (viral coat, capsid, capsomeres) Usually kill infected cells to release newly formed virus.
how do enveloped viruses attach to cells
They attach to host cells using a viral envelope Usually do not kill infected cells to release newly formed virus.
what are the innate host cell defences against viruses
InflammationInterferon
what are the host cell mediated immunity against viruses
NK and cytotoxic T cellsAntibodies important only for subsequent infections
what is the aetiology and pathogenesis of canine brucellosis
contagious diseased caused by the bacteria. any breed/age can be affected by common in mature dogs. affects reproductive system and organs. ZOONOTIC
how is brucellosis transmitted
mucosa and broken skin. via infected fluids
what are the clinical signs of canine brucellosis
lethargyswollen lymph nodesdifficulty walkingback painvaginal discharge etc
how do you diagnose canine brucellosis
spinal xraycytologyserology
how do you treat brucellosis
ATB tests
how do you prevent brucellosis
spay and neuter
what does equine herpes virus cause
abortion 2-12 weeks after infection. if no abortion the foals have viral pneumonitis.
how is equine herpes virus transmitted
contact with aborted fetus, fetal fluids and placenta + also through aerosol secretions from coughing horse
what are the clinical signs of equine herpes virus
can be subclinical in adults.- nasal discharge - incoordination - hind limb weakness - loss of tail tone - lethargy - urine dribbling - head tilt - poor balance - inability to rise.
how do you diagnose equine herpes virus
Diagnosis: nasopharyngeal swab of the horse, blood samples for PCR or virus isolation, or tissue from the aborted fetus for detection of antibody titers.
how do you treat equine herpes virus
Treatment: Supportive care and treatment of the symptoms. NSAIDS used to reduce fever, pain and inflammation. In uncomplicated cases, will recover in a few weeks.
what is the prognosis for equine herpes virus
Prognosis: poor if the horse is recumbent for an extended period of time.
how do you prevent equine herpes virus
Prevention: 2 types of vaccines, controversial. Vaccines might actually reduce the severity and duration of the disease but it will not prevent it. There’s modified live(intra-nasal, faster protection) and killed(IM).
what is bordatella
Bordetella is a very contagious respiratory disease possible in both cats and dogs caused by a bacteria named Bordetella bronchiseptica The bacteria will cause inflammation of the trachea and bronchi
how is bordatella transmitted
Direct contact (licking, nuzzling)Air (coughing, sneezing)Contaminated fomites (bowls, toys)
what are the mild clinical signs of bordatella
Dry, hacking cough in dogs (owners will often refer to the coughing as a foreigh material stuck in the throat) RetchingSneezingNasal discharge
what are the severe clinical signs of bordatella
PneumoniaFever LethargyInnappetence
what is the treatment for bordatella
No medication px when an animal comes in with bordetella. rest for 14 days and reevaluation if no improvement. If productive cough= no anti-tussive pxIf non productive cough = anti-tussive can be px
what are the risk factors for bordatella
Risk factors Shelter animals, rescue centers animals, breeding kennel animals or pet store animals
what are the methods of preventing bordatella
vaccine once a year
what is leishmania
is an intracelluar protozoan parasite that causes the zoonotic disease Leishmaniasis.
how is leishmania spread
Spread through Sand Fly bites, with vertical transmission unlikely but possible.
who is affected by leishmaniasis
Primarily effects dogs, but humans, cats, rodents and horses can also be infected.Leishmaniasis is a major zoonitic endemic between humans and canines
what is the pathogenesis for leishmaniasis
Predisposing factors: Age, genetics, nutrition and general immune statusIncubation period: Months to yearsParasite travels from the skin throughout the host’s body Cutaneous and/or visceral lesions:Skin, kidneys, spleen, liver, eyes, jointsGranulomatous inflammationMediated by CD4 T lymphocytes
what are the symptoms of leishmaniasis
Dermal lesions (nodules, scaling, alopecia, brittle hair coat, may be ulcerative)LymphadenomegalyOcular abnormalitiesEpistaxisWeight loss & anorexiaExercise intolerance/lethargy
what are the methods of diagnosis leishmaniasis
Clinical SignsCBCBiochemHystologyCytology
how do you treat leishmaniasis
SC injections of Meglumine Antimoniate (4-8 wks)PO Zyloprim (6-12 months)Tx may only be temporary and may not eliminate the parasite, leaving the animals carriers for life, with the potential for relapse.Carriers can be infectious to sand flies, restarting the cycle.
what is erysipelas caused by
Caused by a bacteria called Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae that is:Gram-positive
who does erysipelas effect
Affects swine 50% of pigs in production are affected
where is the erysipelas bacteria found
The organism commonly resides in the tonsillar tissue
how is erysipelas transmitted
Organism is shed by carriers in the feces Oronasal secretions
what are the clinical signs of an acute erysipelas infection
Sudden and unexpected death from septicemiaPainful jointsSkin lesions often described as diamond skin
what are the signs of a chronic erysipelas infection
Tends to follow acute infectionsOne form is characterized by enlarged joints and lameness Also has diamond skin disease that can progress to necrosis
how do you diagnose erysipelas
Skin lesionsSkin discoloration and erythema of the ears, snout, and lateral or dorsal regions of the bodyGram stain the tissue sample of affected tissueAcute more difficult to diagnose
how do you treat/prognosis of erysipelas
Penicillin treatment at 12 hour intervals for a minimum of 3 daysFever associated with acute infections treated with NSAIDS Treatment usually ineffective and costly (Poor prognosis)
what is ehrlichia
Ehrlichia is an obligate intracellular bacterium
what is ehrlichia responsible for the transmission of
a group of tick-borne illnesses known as Ehrlichiosis (zoonosis)
describe the ethiology of ehrlichia
Once transmitted, Ehrlichia most commonly infects monocytes. They are able to guarantee their survival because they possess the capability to reprogram the systems and mechanisms of defense employed by the host cell.Ehrlichia can cause an acute or chronic infection. Is zoonotic passed through tick bites, causes similar symptoms as in dogs, but can be fatal in immune compromised patients
what are the signs and symptoms of ehrlichia
Fever, Lethargy, Loss of appetite, Weight Lossabnormal bleeding (e.g., nosebleeds, bleeding under skin – looks like little spots or patches of bruising)enlarged lymph nodes, enlarged spleenpain and stiffness (due to arthritis and muscle pain)Coughing, Discharge from the eyes and/or nosevomiting and diarrheainflammation of the eyeneurological symptoms (e.g., incoordination, depression, paralysis, etc.)
how do you diagnose ehrlichia
Blood counts and hematological tests are crucial to the diagnosis of Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis. Critical signs of ehrlichia infections are: - Low blood counts - thrombocytopenia
what is the etiology of distemper
Direct or indirect (fomite), inhalant transmission Improper attenuated vaccines in rare casesMost common cause is coming in direct contact with infected animals such as raccoons, foxes and skunks.
what is the pathogenesis of distemper
Initially attacks tonsils and lymph nodes and replicates in those specific tissue for about a week. Then attacks the Respiratory, urogenital, gastrointestinal & nervous system
who does distemper affect
Dogs Ferrets Wolves FoxesSkunks RacoonsUnvaccinated dogs are more at risk for contracting the disease
what are the clinical signs of the first stage of distemper
Early symptoms includeHigh fever 39.7°CRed eyesWatery discharge from the nose and eyesFollowing SymptomsLethargic and weakUsually become anorexic May have persistent coughing, vomiting and/or diarrhea
what are the clinical signs of the later stages of distemper
The virus attacks the nervous system effecting the brain and spinal cordMay start having fits, seizures, paralysis, and attacks of hysteria In some strains it can cause abnormal thickening of the pads of feet AKA Hard Pad Disease Secondary bacterial infection may increase the animals vulnerablity to the disease
what is the prognosis for distemper
No cure Recovery is possible but seizures and other severe changes to the CNS may be fatal 2-3 months after recovery Chance of survival depends on the strain and the dogs immune system Young unvaccinated puppies and non-immunized older dogs are more susceptible.
how do you diagnose distemper
Biochemical tests Urinalysis Low lymphocytes Serology test : won’t be able to differentiate between vaccinated antibodies or exposure to virus Viral antigens may be detected in urine sediment or vaginal imprints Skin with hair, nasal mucous and foot pad epithelium may be tested for antibodies CT and MRI can be used to examine the brain to view any lesions that may have developed
how do you treat distemper
Supportive treatment Iv fluidsAntibiotics to control secondary bacterial infection Phenobarbital and potassium bromide to control convulsions and seizuresNo antiviral drugs that are effective in treating the disease
how do you prevent distemper
VaccinationRarely seen in pet dogs because of judicious vaccine protocolsPart of core vaccinations
what is the aetiology and pathogenesis of the avian newcastle disease
RNA virusMost important virus in poultry Chickens are most susceptible, waterfowl are least susceptible
what is the epidemiology and transmission of newcastle disease
Endemic in poultry in most of Asia, Africa, and some countries of North/South AmericaUSA and Canada are free of the virulent strains poultry (import restrictions and destruction of infected poultry)Infected birds shed virus in exhaled air, respiratory discharges, and fecesShed during incubation, clinical stageChickens are often infected by aerosols and ingesting contaminated food and waterYoung chickens are most susceptible
what are the clinical signs of newcastle disease
Rapid onset, symptoms appear throughout the flock within 2-12 days (avg 5) after aerosol exposureOnset is slower if contracted through fecal-oral routeSigns depend on whether the virus has affected the respiratory, digestive, or nervous systemRespiratory: gasping, sneezing, coughing, ralesNervous: tremors, paralyzed wings and legs, twisted necks, circling, clonic spasms, complete paralysisGI: diarrhea, inappetenceMay see complete or partial cessation of egg productionMortality is variable but can be as high as 100% with virulent infections
what is the diagnosis and prevention of newcastle disease
Diagnosed through oropharyngeal or cloacal swabsVaccine available, but the vaccines do not provide sterile immunity ZOONOTIC RISKAll strains can produce a transitory conjuctivitis in humans, usually only when exposed to high quantities of the virus (lab workers and vaccination teams)
what is foot and mouth disease
A reportable, zoonotic, highly contagious viral disease (7 strains) of cattle and swine, which also affects sheep, goats, deer, and other cloven-hoofed ruminants. Giraffes and elephants can also be affected.Mostly found in endemic countries like the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and in parts of South AmericaThe disease is characterized by fever and vesicles in the mouth and on the muzzle, teats, and feetIt can be spread by direct (milk, semen, secretions) and indirect contact (people, air current)
what is the pathogenicity of foot and mouth disease
In endemic countries, there is 100% morbidity with low mortality, except in the case of young animalsThe primary site of infection is in the mucosa of the pharynx, the virus then goes through the lymphatics and replicates in the mouth, muzzle, feet, teats, and damaged skin.Animals that are infected and vaccinated can still carry the disease (cattle up to 3.5 years)
what are the symptoms and treatment of foot and mouth disease
Lameness, pyrexia, vesicles in mouth cavity and feet, decreased milk production, frothing of mouth, teat blisters, and decreased appetiteThere is no treatment, only supportive careIll animals can recover, however they are usually culled, as so the ones who are susceptible. They must be incinerated.
how do you prevent foot and mouth disease
Export restrictions can be instilled to reduce risk of infection in endemic countriesA full quarantine must be implementedFull disinfection of infected areas must be performed immediatelyInfected milk can be disinfected by boiling for 20 minutesVaccination may be provided, however must closely match the strain of the virus, as there is no universal vaccine.The inactivated vx only protects for 4-6 months against clinical signs only
what is helicobacter
Affects cats and dogsFound in gastric tissues and intestinal tractTransmission is unknown, reservoirs unknownConcern of zoonotic transmission
what are the clinical signs of helicobacter
100% of healthy cats and dogs are positive.Infection reported in vomiting cats and dogsSigns: Gastritis, vomiting and diarrheaNo direct relationship between symptoms and infection has been identified
how do you diagnose helicobacter
Upper GI endoscopy ( taking brush samples) or laparotomy Brush samples: Can cover large area of the stomach therefore high sensitivity. Sample viewed under 100x magnification.Multiple biopsies must be taken in the stomach and stained with H&E stain to identify organism.Cytology and histopathology cannot identify specific species but high sensitivity and specificity for Helicobacter.
how do you treat helicobacter
Very little knowledge of pathogenicityTreatment will be based off the presence of species and clinical signs.Some animals don’t experience long term eradication of infection
describe the eye
Eye: Many specialized structuresWith the CNS converts light to visual images
what happens with inappropriate function of the eye
Inappropriate function:Loss of sightPain
what can cause ocular disease
Ocular disease:CongenitalImmune mediatedSecondary to systemic diseaseTraumaticInflammatory
what can cause inflammation of the conjunctiva
IrritantAllergic, ocular trauma, foreign body, fur, eyelash irritationInfection:Bacterial, systemic disease (distemper)
what are the clinical signs of conjunctivitis
Red, inflamed conjunctivaChemosis: swelling (edema)Discharge:Serous to mucopurulentCrusting
what are the signs of pain caused by conjunctivitis
Protruding nictitant membraneSquintingBlepharospasm
how do you diagnose conjunctivitis
Signs, historyNeed to (try to) identify initiating cause:Complete ocular examBacterial cultureTesting for systemic diseaseAllergy testing
how do you treat conjunctivitis
Depends on causeAntibiotic+/- steroids (when not?)
when do you not give steroids for conjunctivitis
if there is an ulcer
what is epiphora
Abnormal overflow of tearsObstructed nasolacrimal ductOverproduction of tears
what causes epiphora
Congenital obstructionInfection/inflammationTraumaForeign bodyTumors
what are the clinical signs of epiphora
Clinical signs:Excessive watery dischargeIrritation of underlying skinEye rubbing
how do you diagnose epiphora
History – Eye examFluorescein (why?), schirmerDiagnostic imaging, surgical exploration
how do you treat epiphora
Depends on underlying causeFlushingStentingSurgeryRemoval of irritantCorrection of deformity
what is the most common complication of treating epiphora
re-occurance
what is cherry eye
Prolapse of nictitating membraneWith inflammation & hypertrophy
which animals are pre-disposed to cherry eye
Cocker spaniels, English bulldogs, Boston terriers, BeaglesRare in cats
what causes cherry eye
Causes:Genetic predispositionOcular infection/irritationSun damage
what are the clinical signs of cherry eye
Red mass in medial canthusMucopurulent dischargeIrritation:ConjunctivitisTearingSquintingUnilateral or Bilateral
how do you treat cherry eye
Surgical correction (not removal)Important for tear production, can predispose to KCS
what is entropion
Entropion:Most common seenInversion of eyelidVery painfulCreates eye damage
what is entropion/ectropion
Conformational abnormalities of the eyelid
what is ectropion
EVersionDroopy eyesExposed conjunctiva:Bacterial infection, irritant exposure
what are the clinical signs of ectropion/entropion
BlepharospasmSquintingEpiphoraCorneal ulceration change in corneal color
how do you treat entropion/ectropion
surgical correction
what is a corneal ulcer
Defect in the corneal epitheliumFrequent if dogs and cats
what causes corneal ulcers
InfectionTraumaForeign bodyEntropionKCS
what are the clinical signs of corneal ulcers
Pain: squinting, epiphora, prominent thrid eyelid, pawing at eyeVisual defect in corneaClouding of the eyeConjunctivitis
how do you diagnose corneal ulcers
History & Eye examFluorescein eye stain
how do you treat corneal ulcers
Removal of causeControl of inflammationPain reductionAntibioticsE-CollarSerumCorneal graft
what is chronic superficial keratitis (pannus)
Progressive, bilateral, inflammatory condition of the cornea
what causes pannus (CSK)
Genetic predisposition(German shepherdsLabradors retrieversBorder colliesGreyhounds)Probably immune-mediatedUV radiationsAltitude
What are the clinical signs of pannus (CSK)
White, pink or brown pigmentation, vascularization & opacificationStarting at OUTSIDE edge of cornea and working inwardsWill affect signtUsually causes discomfort
how do you diagnose pannus (CSK)
DiagnosisHistory & clinical signs
how do you treat pannus (CSK)
Earlier treatment = better prognosisNo cure, can be managed medicallyCorticosteroids (topical, injections)LifelongReduce exposure to UV
what is KCS
Tear (aqueous) deficiencyMost common cause of conjunctivitis in dogs, rare in cats
what causes KCS
Causes:AutoimmuneDrug therapyDistemperGenetic
what are the clinical signs of KCS
Clinical signs:ConjunctivitisChronic muco-purulent dischargeCorneal ulcerationScarringPain/discomfort (rubbing)Depends on severity of disease (amount of tears produced)
how do you diagnose KCS
History and Eye examSchirmer tear testNormal: 18-24 mmKCS
how do you treat KCS
TreatmentEye lubrificationImmune suppressive drugsNeed to verify the presence of corneal ulcer before treatment
what is anterior uveitis
Inflammation of the anterior chamber of the eyeIrisCiliary bodyCommon in dogs and cats
what causes anterior uveitis
Systemic diseasesTraumaIrritantsCataractNeoplasiaIdiopathic
what are the clinical signs of anterior uveitis
Eye appears cloudyIncrease in proteins in anterior chamberInflammation of corneaPainfulMiosisDecrease IOP (intra-ocular pressure)PhotophobiaBlepharospasm
how do you diagnose anterior uveitis
History, Signs, Eye examOphthalmoscope examIOP measurement (very important why?)Fluorescein
how do you treat anterior uveitis
Fast and aggressive treatment is crucial!prevent glaucoma, scarring of the uveal structures, and possibly blindnessClose monitoring of treatmentRemove initiating causeReduce inflammation (NSAIDS, Steroids)+/- antibioticsAtropine Dilates the pupil and helps prevent scarring of the irisReduces pain***Contraindicated if glaucomaPrognosis depends on causeTreatment can be life-long
what is cataracts
Opacity of the lens that causes blurry visionMost common in dogsCan be young or adult onset
what causes cataracts
Causes:AgeGeneticsRadiationTraumaInflammationSystemic disease (DM)
describe nuclear sclerosis
Affects the lensNormal changeMild vision impairmentCan see retina
describe cataracts
Affects the lensAbnormal changeMore severe impairmentCannot see to retina
how do you diagnose cataracts
Diagnosis:HistoryRapid onset in young dogsOphthalmic examMay require dilation (what to check before?)
how do you treat cataracts
Surgical removalSteroids if inflammationAtropine
what is progressive retinal atrophy
Genetic disorder in which the retina atrophies and the animal goes blindAffects cats and dogsBilateral conditionNon-painfulEarly onset, progressive
what are the clinical signs of progressive retinal atrophy
Dilated pupils (glow or shine of the eye)Night blindness at first, then complete blindnessOwners may notice more since quicker onset than old dogsDisorientationFear of dark roomsGetting lostCataract formation common in later stages
how do you diagnose progressive retinal atrophy
Needs exam by ophthalmologistChange in retina blood vessel pattern, optic nerve, etc
how do you treat progressive retinal atrophy
NoneClient education! Not painful!
what causes bone fractures
TraumaNutrient deficienciesNeoplasmHormonal imbalanceInfection
how do you classify bone fractures
Open vs closedComplete vs incomplete
describe a linear fracture
Linear: incomplete, parallele to bone
describe a greenstick fracture
incomplete, bent
describe a comminuted fracture
multiple bone fragments
describe a compression fracture
collapse of vertebra
describe an avulsion fracture
loss of section of bone due to muscle contraction
how do you diagnose a bone fracture
History, signs: severe lameness, pain, crepitus on palpationRadiographs
what can bone fractures be associated with
If the result of trauma Can be associated with more severe damage!Shock, internal organ damage, internal bleeding
how do you initially manage a bone fracture
Initial management: immobilizationReduces painReduces trauma to soft tissueClosed fractures (2-4 days), open (8h; 24-48h)
how do you repair a bone fracture
External coaptation: splint or castExternal fixationInternal fixation: plates, screws, nails, pins, wires
what factors are to be considered when treating a bone fracture
FracturePatientEnvironment
what is important to remember about a splint or cast repair
Splints need frequent evaluations and changescomplications may result in a longer overall healing periodwhereas some fixation methods improve the chance of successful outcomes without demanding post-operative care.
what is panosteitis
Acute, self-limiting condition in quickly growing animalsPain & inflammationIn long bonesMost common in large and giant dog breeds
what causes panosteitis
Unknown (idiopathic)GeneticStressAutoimmune factors
what are the clinical signs of panosteitis
Acute lameness in young animalsOften shifting lameness, intermittentMay be associated with muscle atrophyFever, anorexia, lethargy
how do you diagnose panosteitis
History, signs, PERadiographs (may be NSF if acute)Rule out more serious causes
how do you treat panosteitis
PalliativePain reliefReview dietExcessive development contributes to this disorder
what is degenerative joint disease
Progressive, long-term deterioration of the joint cartilage, causing damageFrequent in dogs and cats
what causes degenerative joint disease
AgeInfectionTraumaDevelopmental dystrophiesObesityAutoimmune conditions
what are the clinical signs of degenerative joint disease
LamenessWorst with exercise, weather changes, inactivityMuscle atrophyJoint inflammation and crepitusDecrease in activity, gait change
how do you diagnose degenerative joint disease
history and PE radiographs
describe degenerative joint disease
Narrowed joint spaceBone sclerosisOsteophytesJoint effusionNon-inflammatorySeverity of lesion not indicative of pain
how do you treat degenerative joint disease
PalliativeWeight lossPain management (monitoring)Low impact exerciseSpecialized dietsPhysical therapySurgeryJoint replacement or excision
what is hip dysplasia
Very common ☹Abnormal development of coxofemoral jointJoint laxityLeads to DJDMost common in large breeds
what causes hip dysplasia
GeneticExtra nutrients in diet
what are the clinical signs of hip dysplasia
VariableLameness, bunny hopReduced range of motionMuscle atrophy
how do you diagnose hip dysplasia
History & PESubluxation testRadiographsSpecial protocols: OFA, PennHIP
how do you treat hip dysplasia
Medical managementSurgical optionsTPO (triple pelvis osteotomy)THR (total hip replacement)FHO (femoral head osteotomy)
what is osteochondritis dissecans
Results from abnormal bone formation from cartilage precursors.Leads to retention of excessive cartilage in the jointForms flaps and breaks off in joint spaceDebris can lead to synovitis and osteoarthritis
what are the most common sites of osteochondritis dissecans
ShoulderElbowStifleTarsal jointMost common in large and giant breeds
what are the clinical signs of osteochondritis dissecans
4-8 mo oldLamenessInflammation, joint effusionMuscle atrophy
how do you diagnose osteochondritis dissecans
Signs and history, PERadiographsCytology to rule out infectiousArthroscopy
how do you treat osteochondritis dissecans
Removal of joint debris + curette to stimulate new formation of cartilageNSAIDSWeight controlPrognosis depends on joint (+: shoulder, stifle; -: elbow, tarsus) and degree of damageLikely genetic so stop breeding
what is patellar luxation
Patella no longer stays confined to femoral grooveMedial or lateral movementCan be uni or bilateralCan lead to osteoarthritisToy and small breedsMostly genetics
what are the clinical signs of patellar luxation
Can develop very earlySkipping lamenessAbnormal leg position: bow legged or knock-kneedRarely painful
how do you diagnose patellar luxation
History, Signs, PEOrthopedic examRadiographs to evaluate changes
when do you do surgery for patellar luxation
If animal symptomaticConsidered for grade 2 and overReconstruction of soft tissue and groove (mostly)
what is a cranial cruciate ligament rupture
Most common causes of hindlimb lamenessTear or rupture of stifle stabilisation ligament
what causes CCL
TraumaAutoimmune diseaseConformational deformity (genetic)40-60% of dogs that have CCL in one knee will, at some future time, develop a similar problem in the other knee.
what are the clinical signs for CCL
Lameness, non-weight bearingPainJoint effusionMuscle atrophyDrawer sign: Radiographs
how do you treat CCL
MedicalWeight loss, Physical therapyNSAID, analgesics, joint supplementsSurgicalBest treatment optionDone to restore stability, not repairOsteotomy or suture technique
what is intervertebral disk disease
Degeneration and protrusion of the disk located between the vertrebraPuts pressure on spinal cord, causing CNS signs
which animals are genetically pre-disposed to intervertebral disk disease
Genetic predisposition in chondrodystrophic dogsDachshunds, Shih Tzus, Lhasa Apsos, Basset, Corgis, Beagles, Cocker
what are the clinical signs of IVDD
Neck and back painMuscle spasm (stiff, round back)Ataxia, paraplegia, toe knuckling
how do you diagnose IVDD
History, signs and PENeurological examRadiographs/CT
how do you treat IVDD
Conservative treatment with cage rest, confinement, and pain medicationsfirst episode and the neurologic deficits are mildSurgeryMore severe casesLoss of deep sensation requires emergency surgeryPrognosis is variable
