PAPER 2 > SKILL ACQUISITION Flashcards
6 CLASSIFICATION CONTINUA
> environment > pacing > organisation > muscular involvement > difficulty > continuity
ENVIRONMENTAL SKILLS
open / closed
> tackle in football
> high jump
PACING SKILLS
self paced / externally paced
> triple jump
> tackle in rugby
ORGANISATION SKILLS
low organisation / high organisation
>
>
MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT SKILLS
fine / gross
> darts throw
> rugby tackle
DIFFICULTY SKILLS
basic / complex
>
>
CONTINUITY SKILLS
discrete / serial / continuous
> discus
> long jump
> 1500m running
MASSED PRACTICE
> practising continuously without a break
simple and discrete skills
experienced athletes
DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE
> practising with breaks > gives athletes time to recover > gives time for coaches to give feedback to athletes > complex skills > beginners and experienced athletes
VARIABLE PRACTICE
> repeating technique in many situations
open skills
externally paced skills
improves understanding of technique
FIXED PRACTICE
> repeating technique in one situation > closed skills > discrete skills > low organisation skills > improves motor programmes
WHOLE PRACTICE
> practising the whole skill at once
high organisation skills
discrete skills
difficult for skills with subroutines
PART PRACTICE
> practising different parts of a skill and putting them together
discrete skills
high organisation skills
self paced skills
PROGRESSIVE PART PRACTICE
> serial skills are broken into their sub routines > high organisation skills > serial skills > self paced skills > develops confidence with skills
WHOLE PART WHOLE PRACTICE
> performer attempts whole skill
performer then attempts sub routines of the skill
performer reattempts whole skill
high organisation skills
8 TYPES OF PRACTICE
> massed > distributed > variable > fixed > whole > part > progressive part > whole part whole
POSITIVE TRANSFER
when learning in one task is enhanced by learning in another task
POSITIVE TRANSFER EXAMPLE
> sprinter to bobsleigh (running)
> golf to cricket (batting)
NEGATIVE TRANSFER
when learning in one task is hindered by the learning of another task
NEGATIVE TRANSFER EXAMPLE
> tennis to badminton (swings)
PROACTIVE TRANSFER
when a skill which is learnt previously is used to help one which is currently being learnt
PROACTIVE TRANSFER EXAMPLE
> basketball to netball (passing)
RETROACTIVE TRANSFER
when a skill being learned interferes with a skill already learned
RETROACTIVE TRANSFER EXAMPLE
> basketball to netball back to basketball
BILATERAL TRANSFER
learning a skill on your non-dominant side
BILATERAL TRANSFER EXAMPLE
> football corner from left and right foot
RECALL SCHEMA
occurs before movement happens and involves initial conditions and response specifications
INITIAL CONDITIONS
>
- where is the goal / opposition / team mates
- what is the environment like
- what condition am i in
RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS
>
- how fast do i need to go (speed)
- where do i need to pass the ball (direction)
- how hard do i need to pass the ball (power)
- which technique will produce the best results (technique)
RECOGNISION SCHEMA
> occurs during / after the skill
> allows the recognision of what needs to be improved
MOVEMENT OUTCOMES
> knowledge of results
> end result and comparison to intended outcome
SENSORY CONSEQUENCES
> knowledge of performance
> intrinsic and extrinsic feedback
THREE STAGES OF THORNDIKES LAW
> law of exercise
law of effect
law of readiness
THORNDIKES LAW
part of operants conditioning
LAW OF EFFECT
if the response is followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated but if followed by an unpleasant consequence it is likely to be stopped
LAW OF READINESS
the performer must be physically and mentally ready for the task
> must capable to do the skill
PUNISHMENT
> punishment needs to be considered with reinforcement
PUNISHMENT INVOLVEMENTS
> giving an unpleasant stimulus to a performer to prevent a response from occurring
unpleasant stimulus is called a noxious stimulus
a noxious stimulus is designed to break an undesired learning bond
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
[ BANDURA STAGES ]
attention
> to be able to copy the demonstration by paying attention and focus on the important cues
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
[ BANDURA STAGES ]
attention
> to be able to copy the demonstration by paying attention and focus on the important cues
retention
> observer must be able to remember the model and create a mental image
motor-reproduction
> observer must be able to be physically capable of performing the skill
motivation
> crucial for imitation to occur
VISUAL GUIDANCE
> learning through demonstration to help the learner through mental image of the skill
vision is the dominant sense and we learn through imitation / needs to be accurate
video / charts / diagrams
VISUAL GUIDANCE ADVANTAGES
> provides learner with a mental image of skill
draw attention to key points - gives cues
better for less complex skills where less information to be given
VISUAL GUIDANCE DISADVANTAGES
> can be demotivating to the learner if it is highly complex skill as they wont be able to complete it
can overload beginners with information
needs to be accurate and clear otherwise skill can be learning incorrectly
VERBAL GUIDANCE
> most frequent used form of guidance
often used in conjunction with visual to direct learner to important cues
needs to be clear and concise
the learner has to understand and relate the information given to the skill being learned
VERBAL GUIDANCE ADVANTAGES
> tactics can be explained
gives technical information / key points / highlight cues
feedback can be given and immediately
VERBAL GUIDANCE DISADVANTAGES
> players must understand the basic terminology used
overload beginners with information
learners may lose concentration easily
MANUAL GUIDANCE
> involves the coach holding and physically manipulating the body of the learner through the correct pattern of movement
MANUAL GUIDANCE ADVANTAGES
> builds confidence
eliminates danger
gives early feel for whole skill
MANUAL GUIDANCE DISADVANTAGES
> learner becomes dependent on support and interferes with kinastethic awareness
proximity of coach may be upsetting
MECHANICAL GUIDANCE
> involves the use of equipment to help support the learner and shape the skill
MECHANICAL GUIDANCE ADVANTAGES
> promotes confidence and ensures safety for the learner particularly where there is an element of danger in the skill
MECHANICAL GUIDANCE DISADVANTAGES
> learners can become dependent on this form
the feel of the movement with the guidance is different to the actual movement
the learner does not get on opportunity to correct mistakes in the technique
VISUAL GUIDANCE EXAMPLE
teacher demonstrates a chest pass - attention on hand positioning
VERBAL GUIDANCE EXAMPLE
teacher giving information on tactics / strategies / explaining what they want from learner
teacher saying bent elbows in frontcrawl
MANUAL GUIDANCE EXAMPLE
teacher supports learner in a handstand in gymnastics
MECHANICAL GUIDANCE EXAMPLE
trampolinist using a harness to learn new skills
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
received when the performance was successful
> strengthens the S-R bond
> strengthens the likelihood of repetition
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
received when the performance was unsuccessful
> internal / external
EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK
received from outside sources
> linked to knowledge of results
> coach / team mates
INTRINSIC FEEDBACK
received from within the performer themselves
> muscular contractions
> performer can feel the movements and outcomes
> kinastethic feedback
TERMINAL FEEDBACK
received after the performance
CONCURRENT FEEDBACK
received during the performance
> internal / external
KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE
receiving the information about the movement itself and can be internal but the coach can give corrections
> slow motion cameras
> highly dependent on learner and stage of learning
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS
often external and usually terminal
> involves the performer seeing the results or receiving information it is vital to learning
> little progress made without learner receiving information
FEEDBACK IMPORTANCE
allows for improvement and learn the motor skill - understand key coaching points in order to improve fluency
COGNITIVE THEORY
[ GESTALTIST VIEW ]
suggests that a performer learns by thinking and understanding what is required of them rather than connecting stimuli and response
INSIGHT LEARNING
using and applying previous experiences to make their decisions
COGNITIVE VS SKINNER
goes against skinners theory
> a basketball player who has the zone defence explained to them will understand when it is necessary to use tactics
4 AREAS OF COGNITIVE THEORY
> whole approach
problem solving
experience / insight
understanding
OPERANT CONDITIONING
[ BEHAVIOURISM ]
> skinner theorised
involves shaping the environment to manipulate behaviour
receiving rewards or reinforcements for those actions
learnt by trial and error
if correct performers are likely to repeat
adjust what you are doing to be positive
if incorrect performers are motivated to change
OPERANT CONDITIONING
[ ASSOCIATIONIST ]
> commonly used when teaching a motor skill and works on the principle that actions are made stronger for repetition
a coach can accelerate trial and error
WAYS TO ACCELERATE TRIAL AND ERROR
[ ASSOCIATIONIST ]
> making corrects to reinforce correct responses stronger
> de-direct incorrect response
[ ASSOCIATIONIST ]
> theories relating to connecting stimulus or response
> strengthen the S-R bond through manipulation and reward
REINFORCEMENT
partial reinforcement
> stagger the reinforcement [lasts longer to strengthen the S-R bond but takes longer to learn]
complete reinforcement
> all of the reinforcement at once [quicker to learn but may not last as long]
USES OF REINFORCEMENT
used to strengthen the S-R > use positive reinforcement > reduce negative reinforcement > allow early success > use mental rehearsal
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
PUNISHMENT
> positively praise with reward
negatively or not with praise and no reward
when actions are incorrect or not in the rules
SOCIAL / OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING THEORY
[ BANDURA ]
sports coaches can use the fact that significant behaviour is often copied by using strategies to ensure the learner copies desired behaviours
BANDURA
behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is reinforced with success particularly if it is a powerful image performed by a role model
OPTIMISING EFFECTS OF POSITIVE TRANSFER
> offer a realistic approach to training and practice and allowing for early success and progress slowly
maintain similar environmental conditions in both situations
ensure practices replicate the performance environment
[ adding defenders ]
LIMITING THE EFFECTS OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER
> rare and mostly temporary
occurs when a known stimulus requires a new response and creates confusion
coaches should be aware of this and understand the initial performance may drop and to draw this to the performers attention
RECALL SCHEMA
[ PRIOR ]
> initial conditions
where am i?
response specifications
what is expected?
RECOGNITION SCHEMA
[ AFTER ]
> sensory consequence
how did it feel?
response outcomes
did it work?
THREE STAGES OF LEARNING
> cognitive
associative
autonomous
COGNITIVE STAGE
> first stage of learning
beginner who tries to work out and understand what is required of them
use cues
effective and conscience
short phase using trial and error to help develop early understanding
manual and mechanical guidance
extrinsic feedback
positive feedback and environment / reinforcement
visual demonstrations
ASSOCIATIVE STAGE
> the practice phase
athlete compares their current levels to elites
intrinsic feedback
long periods of practice
used to correct errors and perfect skills
higher amount of positive to negative (60%-40%)
build mental framework
motor programmes are coded into the memory
verbal and visual guidance
based upon repetition
AUTONOMOUS STAGE
> movements are almost automatic
movements are perfected
performer can concentrate on finer details of skill
phase is for experts who wish to remain at this level
performance is temporary depending on motivation
MEMORY MODELS TWO THEORISTS
> atkinson and shiffren
> craik and lockhart
ATKINSON AND SHIFFREN MODEL
multi store memory model
CRAIK AND LOCKHARTS MODEL
levels of processing model
ENCODING
conversion of information into codes called visual codes, auditory codes and semantic cdes
ENCODING SPORTING EXAMPLES
if we hear a coach tell us a tactical play we may not remember it word for word but we remember the essential meaning
STORAGE
this concerns the retention of information over a period of time
RETRIEVAL
involves recovering the information that has been stored and the success of this retrieval depends on how much there is of it
> memory is important in processing information and our previous experiences affect how we judge and interpret information and the course of action we take
METHOD USED TO HELP MEMORY
chunking method for numbers
CHUNKING METHOD FOR MEMORY OF NUMBERS
different pieces of information can be grouped or chunked together and then remembered as one piece of information
SENSORY STORES
information in the form of stimuli enters the brain from the environment
> large capacity
> information is stored within less than a second
> when selective attention takes place
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
relevant information is filtered through into the short term memory and irrelevant information is lost or forgotten
SENSORY STORES IN SPORT
extremely important in sport where quick reactions are dependent on being able to concentrate on important information and shut out distractions
SHORT TERM MEMORY
> when information is used to decide what needs to be done
only a limited amount of information can be stored in the short term memory
30 seconds
5 - 9 pieces of information
HOW TO STORE INFORMATION FROM THE SHORT TERM MEMORY
ensure rehearsal to be able to store in the long term memory
CHUNKING SPORTS EXAMPLE
rugby and hockey practical example
> instead of trying to remember each separate move made by each player in a line out in rugby, short corner in hockey a player might remember the whole drill as a single number
REHEARSAL
information is considered important enough and is rehearsed it can be passed into the long term memory and this is the process of encoding the information
> if information is not important then it wont be in the long term memory
LONG TERM MEMORY
information is almost limitless and holds information for long periods of times
> information has been encoded
> ensuring that information is meaningful to the athlete to be able to be stored in the long term memory
> motor programmes are stored in the long term memory due to being rehearsed
> leads to skills becoming automatic or ‘overlearned’
LONG TERM MEMORY SPORTING EXAMPLES
swimming examples
> being aware of the depth notices on the side of the pool but these may be largely meaningless to your performance in a swimming race
CRAIK AND LOCKHARTS MODEL
levels of processing model
THREE WAYS TO STORE IN THE LONG TERM MEMORY
> is considered
is understood
has meaning (past memory)
MEMORY TRACE
when the brain cells retain or store information
THREE LEVELS OF PROCESSING VERBAL INFORMATION
> structural level
phonetic level
semantic level
STRUCTURAL LEVEL
this involves paying attention to what the words look like
PHONETIC LEVEL
this involves processing the sounds of words
SEMANTIC LEVEL
this considers the actual meaning of words
STRUCTURAL LEVEL DEPTH OF PROCESSING
shallow level
PHONETIC LEVEL DEPTH OF PROCESSING
shallow ish level
SEMANTIC LEVEL DEPTH OF PROCESSING
deepest level
RELATING BOTH MODELS TO LEARNING [6]
to optimise learning and sports performance there are a number of ways in which memory can be improved > rehearsal > meaningfulness > association > avoiding overload > organise information > mental imagery
LONG TERM MEMORY
information is almost limitless and holds information for long periods of times
> information has been encoded
> ensuring that information is meaningful to the athlete to be able to be stored in the long term memory
> motor programmes are stored in the long term memory due to being rehearsed
> leads to skills becoming automatic or ‘overlearned’
LONG TERM MEMORY SPORTING EXAMPLES
swimming examples
> being aware of the depth notices on the side of the pool but these may be largely meaningless to your performance in a swimming race
CRAIK AND LOCKHARTS MODEL
levels of processing model
THREE WAYS TO STORE IN THE LONG TERM MEMORY
> is considered
is understood
has meaning (past memory)
MEMORY TRACE
when the brain cells retain or store information
THREE LEVELS OF PROCESSING VERBAL INFORMATION
> structural level
phonetic level
semantic level
STRUCTURAL LEVEL
this involves paying attention to what the words look like
PHONETIC LEVEL
this involves processing the sounds of words
SEMANTIC LEVEL
this considers the actual meaning of words
STRUCTURAL LEVEL DEPTH OF PROCESSING
shallow level
PHONETIC LEVEL DEPTH OF PROCESSING
shallow ish level
SEMANTIC LEVEL DEPTH OF PROCESSING
deepest level
RELATING BOTH MODELS TO LEARNING [6]
to optimise learning and sports performance there are a number of ways in which memory can be improved > rehearsal > meaningfulness > association > avoiding overload > organise information > mental imagery
REHEARSAL
this can be used for retrieval of information in both short term and long term memory
> multi store memory model
REHEARSAL PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - TENNIS
tennis player rehearsing a tennis serve physically as well as mentally by practising the subroutines over the serve
MEANINGFULNESS
the more the information is seen as relevant to our needs, the more likely we are to remember it as shown in the levels of processing models
MEANINGFULNESS PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - TENNIS
the tennis coach will show that the coaching information being given will raise the player’s performance levels
ASSOCIATION
if new information is linked somehow to old information, it is more likely to be remembered, thus associating it with something already known, especially relevant to the levels of processing approach
ASSOCIATION PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - TENNIS
the tennis coach will show the player that new information regarding the serve technique is simply an adaptation of the old serve so the learning of a whole new skill is not required
AVOIDING OVERLOAD
any new information must be allowed to ‘sink in’ thus avoiding potential confusion (multi store model of memory)
AVOIDING OVERLOAD PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - TENNIS
the tennis coach will only give a few points for the player to remember before the match
ORGANISE INFORMATION
we have seen that chinking can expand the STM store and the complex pieces of information should be grouped to aid understanding
(multi store memory model)
ORGANISE INFORMATION PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - TRAMPOLINIST
the trampolinist will remember a complex sequence by mentally putting together smaller sub routines to make a full sequence
MENTAL IMAGERY
a performer will often remember a visual representation far more than verbal instructions
(levels of processing approach)
MENTAL IMAGERY PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - TRAMPOLINIST
the trampoline coach demonstrates the move to the performer or shows them a video of the sequence so they can remember it more effectively
