Option B: Psychology of sport Flashcards
Define the term personality.
1.1
Those relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals
Explain the relationship between personality and success in sport (3)
Discuss social learning theory and personality.
1.2
Proposed by Albert Bandura-
Personality is learned through our experiences, observing those around us and imitating their behaviour
- proposes all behaviour is learned
- learning happens through other peoples influence and environment interaction
- personality structures of SLT mainly cognitive -> knowledge/thoughts processes
Modelling (learning):
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivational response
Reinforcement:
- As behavior is reinforced or rewarded in some way, it is likely that behavior is repeated
Explain how a soccer coach uses social learning theory when they demonstrate a skill to be learnt. (3)
1.2
Discuss how social learning theory can help a sports coach promote physical activity in children (3)
Apply social learning theory to a novice who wants to learn from an experienced performer. (2)
1.2
Discuss the interactionist approach to personality. (3)
1.3
Explain the interactionist approach to personality using a sporting example. (3)
1.3
Discuss the interactionist theory and how it relates to the reactions of players in competitive sports.
1.3
How do psychologists measure personality?
1.4
Describe issues assocaited with the measurement of personality through questionnaires. (3)
1.4
Outline two issues associated with the measurement of personality (2)
1.4
What are the general trends that research has reported for personality in sports?
->
Evaluate the issues in personality research and sports performance:
- Considering psychologists positions
- Considering athletes vs. non-athletes (4)
1.5
Evaluate the issues in personality research and sports performance:
Considering personality & sports type
1.5
->
Evaluate the issues in personality research and sports performance:
Considering predicting performance
1.5
->
What is Profile of Mood States (POMS)?
What role does mood play in sport?
Profile of Mood States (POMS): psychological rating scale used to assess transient, distinct mood states.
Different moods influence sport performance. Look at the picture and see which moods successful athletes have in comparison to unsuccessful athletes.
Define the term motivation.
2.1
Motivation is “the internal mechanisms and external stimuli which arouse and direct our behaviour” (Sage 1974)
Outline intrinsic motivation
2.2
Intrinsic motivation
- comes from within a person
- associated with doing an activity for itself
- pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation
Motives:
excitement
fun, enjoyment
chance to improve skills
Outline extrinsic motivation used in sport
2.2
Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in exercise.
2.2
intrinsic motivation: reason for exercise are derived internally (eg enjoyment, knowledge, fun)
extrinsic motivation: is stimulated from outside/external sources (eg praise from others, money, awards)
Discuss the issues associated with the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in sports and exercise.
2.3
Issues w/ intrinsic:
- no competitive drive to become champions
Issues w/ extrinsic:
- athletes become discouraged if expectations not met
- Extrinsic rewards seen as controlling of behaviour
- Perceived controlling rewards reduce intrinsic motivation
- Lacks a level of self-control and determination
- When an athlete achieves the reward, they may lose the motivation to continue / reward is no longer achieved, motivation can be decreased
- e.g. footballer being paid high salary loses intrinsic motivation
Describe Atkinson’s model of Achievment Motivation
2.4
What are the components of Atkinson’s model of Achievement Motivation?
2.4
Personality factors:
- Need to avoid failure (NAF)- a state of mind in which a performer avoids situations in which they think they might not be successful
- Need to achieve (NACH)-the intrinsic motivation to be successful
Situational factors:
- Judge situation in terms of probability & incentive value of success
Resultant tendencies:
- Approach success- High achievers select tasks w/ 50/50 chance of success, risk-takers
- Avoid Failure- Choose tasks which are either very easy or very difficult
Outline Goal Orientation theory.
2.5
In Achievement settings (sport & exercise): main concern of athlete is to demonstrate high ability (SUCCESS) & avoid demonstrating low ability (FAILURE).
Different motivations for success/achievement goals is combined result of typical response (personality) & prevailing situational factors (environment):
- Task Goals
- Ego/Outcome Goals
Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ)
- Task Orientation: positively correlated w/ effort, enjoyment, persistence, satisfaction, interest and intrinsic motivation
- Ego Orientation: negatively correlated w/ enjoyment, interest and positively correlated with boredom.
Distinguish between an outcome goal orientated athlete and a task orientated athlete.
2.5
->
Describe Attribution Theory and its application to sport and exercise.
2.6
Attribution Theory
- Reasons given by coaches and players themselves to account for successes and failures in sport
- Important in sport because it effects future effort and therefore performance
Reasons for success or failure:
Locus of causality (internal-external dimension)
- assess extent to which resons (success or failure) due to personal control of perforer
- Internal reasons: in performer’s control & felt that personal influence exerted on outcome. E.g. effort
- External reasons: out of performer’s control, might exert little influence in future. E.g. referee’s decision
Stability (stable-unstable dimension)
- Stable reasons: based on past experience, reasons for success or failure unlikely to change short term, relatively permanent (E.g. team coach not changing season, won against opponents 6x season one is likely to think it will repeat)
- Unstable reasons: changable short term even within game. (E.g. amount of luck. If reasons change, expect diff. outcome & continue strive for improvement)
Applications:
Self-serving bias
- reasons for successful performances are internal & attributed to oneself
- reasons for failure are deflected & assigned to something out of one’s control
- phenomenon apperent post game interviews
Learned helplessness
- athletes reasons for failure attributed to internal factors that cannot be changed e.g. lack of ability
- believe failure is inevitable, success due to luck & not repeatable
- caused by lack of success, low confidence, bad experience, shame
- performer w/ LH may give up
Describe locus of stability and locus of causality, using examples from a sport or exercise of your choice. (3)
Describe how the attribution of success allows a soccer player to use self-serving bias to experience positive emotions. (2)
2.6
Define the term arousal.
3.1
Arousal is a physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli
- Autonomic arousal- immediate response to stressor
- Sympathetic nervous system closes down non-essential physiological systems -> fight or flight response systems.
What are the theoretical approaches to arousal?
3.2
- Drive reduction theory
- Inverted-U hypothesis
- Catastrophe theory
Describe the theoretical approach to arousal: DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY
Draw & label a graphical representation of the arousal-performance relationship
3.2, 3.3
As arousal increases, so too does performance
Explanation:
- Humans motivated to reduce state of tension caused when certain biological needs are not satisfied
- Theory explains behaviours that have a strong biological component
E.g: might be driven to drink a glass of water to reduce your sensation of thirst
Problems:
1. Little research to support this
2. Athletes can perform poorly if overly aroused
3. People are not always motivated by internal needs
Describe the theoretical approaches to arousal: INVERTED-U HYPOTHESIS
Draw & label a graphical representation of the arousal-performance relationship
3.2, 3.3
Describe the theoretical approaches to arousal: CATASTROPHE THEORY
Draw & label a graphical representation of the arousal-performance relationship
3.2, 3.3
A rapid decline in performance resulting from combination of high cognitive anxiety & increasing somatic anxiety.
- As arousal increases, so too does performance, up to an optimal point. Afterward, a rapid decline in performance - the catastrophe - occurs
- after decline the performance may continue to deteriorate
- after the decline, the performer may try to regain control by decreasing arousal, which can cause a gradual rise in performance
Problems:
1. Difficult to study scientifically
2. Shows it’s necessary to control anxiety
Discuss the emotions that may influence an athlete’s performance or experience in a physical activity
3.4
Specific emotions have discrete effect on performance:
Positive emotions: excitement, relief, pride
- more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes -> increase our confidence to perform
negative emotions: anger, guilt, shame, anxiety, boredom
- more likely to prime us to remember negative memories of past failures -> thus reduce feelings of confidence to perform
Discuss the positive emotions that characterize an athlete’s experience
3.4
Excitement:
- motivate athlete to perform their best
best –> will be highly focused - masks pain/fatigue –> stimulates adrenaline
Relief:
- calm nerves & increase confidence
- Success in tight/difficult situation can instil great sense of happiness
Pride:
- improve motivation and striving to achieve
- beginning of a match where a national anthem is played/sung and this could help to raise the initial performance of an athlete to perform their very best;
Joy:
- Euphoria/fun experienced from the engagement/stimulation of the activity;
- creates positive mindset & makes it more likely that they will be optimally
aroused
Discuss the negative emotions that characterize an athlete’s experience
3.4
Anger
- athlete has tunnel vision and misses key cues
Guilt
- athlete does not push themselves and they withdraw in the game
Fear
- athlete may avoid situations and try to avoid contact with others
Anxiety
- distracted by their own thoughts and miss cues
Boredom
- cues are missed due to arousal being low
Explain why a highly emotional athlete might be more inconsistent in performance than a more emotionally stable athlete.
3.4
Define the term anxiety.
3.5
- The subjective evaluation of a situation, and concerns jeopardy to one’s self esteem during performance and social situations, physical danger, or insecurity and uncertainty
- State in which feelings of worry are associated with over-arousal of the body
Distinguish between cognitive and somatic anxiety.
3.6
Cognitive Anxiety: Worry component
- Chain of negative thoughts & images that are relatively uncontrollable
Somatic Anxiety: Physical component
- Awareness of physiological changes that provides a signal to the individual that they are anxious
- Somatic anxiety and physiological arousal are similar, but NOT THE SAME.
E.g. a person experiences trembling and nausea may become more anxious because these symptoms are telling them they are experiencing anxiety.
Distinguish between trait and state anxiety.
3.7
State anxiety refers to a person’s response to a specific situation
WHEREAS
Trait anxiety refers to the general level of stress/emotional state an individual experiences at any given time
Discuss how trait anxiety and state anxiety are measured. (4)
3.7
Distinguish between arousal & anxiety.
->
Evaluate how state anxiety is measured.
3.8
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R)
- person’s emotional state at any given time - variable from situation to situation
What is it?
- Sport-specific state anxiety scale
- Measures three state anxiety components: cognitive, somatic state, self-confidence.
- Before competition, more than once, such as a week before, a day before, and half an hour before this.
->Enables researchers to discover baseline levels of anxiety and compare it with pre-competition levels to see if they differ.
Evaluation:
- Difficult to apply & measure in time pressured situations that involve participants being stressed
- Social Desirability
- Interpretation of questionnaires
Evaluate how trait anxiety is measured.
3.8
Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)
- person’s disposition to interpreting a situation as threatening and responding with an increase in state anxiety
What is it?
- Self-report questionnaire: rate how nervous they feel both in general and in specific situations
- Scoring system for questions gives indication state & trait anxiety of performer
Evaluation:
- Difficult to apply & measure in time pressured situations that involve participants being stressed
- Social Desirability
- Interpretation of questionnaires
Describe the advantages of the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) (2)
Describe the stress process in sport.
3.9
Stress- substantial imbalance between demand (physical and/or psychological) & response capability, under conditions where failure to meet demand has important consequences
Stress Research: (Hans Selye 1936, 1979)
- Negative stress & Positive stress
-> Stress not necessarily negative response. - Stress and eustress: Competitive sport participation provides exhilaration & enjoyment for some
What is psychological skills training (PST)?
4.1
(PST) - systematic & consistent practice of mental or psychological skills
- PST skills = psychological qualities/ attributes needed to be developed (i.e. confidence, concentration)
- PST method = tool used to help improve the PST skill (Calmels et al. 2003) -> must be individualized
Discuss psychological skills training (PST) (3)
Suggest changes to the skills that take place during the practice phase of psychological skills training. (3)
4.1
Discuss the aquisition phase of psychological skills training for the purpose of enhancing exercise performance. (3)
4.1
Who is psychological skills training (PST) for?
4.1
Psychological Skills Training (PST) is an individually designed combination of methods selected to attain psychological skill needs.
-not just for elite/problem athletes
-does not provide quick-fix solutions
Discuss the 3 phases of psychological skills training (PST).
4.1
-
Educational - athlete learns about the importance of psychological skills and how they can
affect performance
- clarification of the role/level of commitment of the psychologist/ coach/ athlete;
- Acquisition - athlete learns about strategies & techniques to improve specific psychological skills that they require;
- needs analysis of the athlete would be carried out to ensure that any potential PST is centred around the needs of the athlete;
- Practice - automate skills through over-learning or repeated practice;
- to teach athletes to systematically integrate psychological skills into their
performance situations;
What is goal setting?
4.2
Setting practical and realistic targets for achieving some desired result in the future
GS- helps enhance motivation & self-confidence to individuals
What are the different types of goals (involved in goal setting)?
4.2
Process goals: Self-referenced focused on strategy/technique/feel
- e.g., feel of a golf swing;
Performance goals: focuses on a self referenced/controllable specific
measurable/numeric performance element
- e.g., running a personal best;
Outcome goals: Norm-referenced/social comparison objective outcomes,
- e.g., winning a gold medal;
Distinguish between a performance goal
and a process goal. (2)
Describe the principles of effective goal-setting in sports performance.
4.2
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Time
Evaluate
Review
What is mental imagery.
How does it work?
4.3
Athlete imagining themselves in an environment performing a specific activity using all of their senses (sight, hear, feel and smell). The images should have the athlete performing successfully and feeling satisfied with their performance.
How?
- body cannot distinguish between something that is really happening, and something that they are visualizing.
-> associated w/ concentration enhancement, self-confidence, skill aquisition, emotional control, practice strategy, coping w/ pain or injury
Discuss three uses of mental imagery with examples from sport (3)
4.3
Discuss three factors affecting the effectiveness of mental iagery (3)
4.3
Evaluate the use of mental imagery used by a slalom skier (3)
What are the different types of mental imagery?
4.3
Internal Imagery: Visualising yourself as the person actually going through the motions. Allows you to have a keen awareness of how it feels to do things the correct way.
External imagery: (as if you are a spectator or watching a video of yourself) is good for error correction, this way you can see what it is you are actually doing wrong, as would your coach.
What is PETTLEP?
Give a definition & example for each element.
4.3
Protocol for imagery interventions - “PETTLEP”
Evaluate mental imagery.
(Pros & Cons)
4.3
PROS:
- motivate athlete by recalling images of success in past competition/ beating competitor
- reduce neg. thoughts: focusing on positive outcomes
- Set stage for performance w/ complete mental run through of the key elements of their performance to set the athletes desired pre-competition feelings and focus.
CONS:
- Some athletes may imagine negative previous performances in past competitions/ against a particular opponent.
- approach takes lot of practice for it to have a positive impact. Performers must use it every day in order to master the technique.
- must be physically able & proficient for success
- If unable to perform the basic skills and movement patterns of the game, imagery will be ineffective.
- in moment, this approach can be forgotten due to distractions and external factors.
What are relaxation techniques? Why do them?
4.4
- Variety of skills/strategies to help cope w/ pressured situations
- Ability to control anxiety, relax, ensure arousal levels important to facilitate performance/peak performance
Outline examples of relaxation techniques: Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR)
4.4
PMR- process whereby muscle groups in sequence from head to toe are tensed for several seconds before being relaxed;
- tensing muscles appears to enable the muscle to relax more fully when released;
When?
- most beneficial in trained form as rapid relaxation technique/aid to heighten awareness of unwanted tension
- build up and on day of competition
- prior competition won’t leave athlete in optimum state
Effect?
- Enhances self-awareness of degrees of body tension & impact of this onperformance
- Goal: achieve relaxed state in seconds
Outline examples of relaxation techniques: Breathing Techniques
4.4
What?
- used to calm body & distract mind from pressure of competition by giving mind specific task to focus on
- increases amount of oxygen in blood, carry more energy to muscles & facilitate removal of waste product
- require regular practice
How? E.g.
- under stressful conditions performers hold breath, breathe rapidly & shallowly: both limit amount of oxygen in blood & increase muscle tension
- breath in to count of 4 & out to ocunt of 8
When?
- during break or time out during match or prior to performance
Outline self-talk techniques: Biofeedback
4.5
What?
- Use of instruments to measure physiological systems (heart rate, muscle activation, brain waves, skin temp.) & feed info. back to athlete
- awareness of systems (how they’re operating) assist athlete in controlling them
E.g.
- pistol shooters can lower heart rate through relaxation & breathing techniques & train themselves to shoot btw. heart beats -> reduce pamount of physiological variability at point of release
Outline self-talk techniques:
4.4
Self-talk: internal dialogue that performer experiences
- has powerful effect on performers self-image, perception, confidence, expectations, performance
Goal of self-talk technique:
encourage use of positive self-talk, eliminate negative self-talk
Step 1. to Ensure effective self-talk: Awareness
- can’t change neg. self-talk w/o acknowledging it
Step 2: Changing self-talk
- use of thought logs (athlete records thoughts & identify where they’re pos.,neg. neutral)
- thought stopping (stopping neg. thoughts through verbal commands/visual image)
- cognitive reconstructing (neg. thoughts restructured to pos.)
When?
- help performers control thoughts prior, during, after performance
- built into athlete prep. plan, pre-shot routine
Outline the tecnique of “thought stopping” to reduce negative thoughts in slalom skiing (2)
Discuss the emotions that may influence an athlete’s performance or experience in a physical activity
3.4
Specific emotions have discrete effect on performance:
Positive emotions: excitement, relief, pride
- more likely to prime us to remember positive previous outcomes -> increase our confidence to perform
negative emotions: anger, guilt, shame, anxiety, boredom
- more likely to prime us to remember negative memories of past failures -> thus reduce feelings of confidence to perform
Discuss the influence of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation in sport
Outline intrinsic motivation as it relates to exercise (2)
2.2
Explain how extrinsic motivators can positively impact a 400m sprinter preparing for a competition. (2)
2.2
