5.2 Information processing (Skill)

Question 1

Describe a simple model of information processing.

2.1

Answer 1

Information processing- the system by which we take information from our surrounding environment, use it to make a decision and then produce a response

• input–decision-making– output

Black Box Model- information processing model in which an individual is considered to be a black box into which information flows from the environment. The information is processed in various ways inside the box until it is expressed as observable behaviour (the output)

Question 2

Describe Welford’s model of information processing.

2.2

Answer 2

1. Input Mechanism (Perceptual Mechanism)

• Receives information from the environment through sensory organs
• Primarily uses visual and auditory input in sports
• Filters relevant information from background noise

2. Decision Making (Translation Mechanism)

• Processes the received information
• Compares current situation with past experiences
• Selects appropriate response from stored memory
• Most complex and time-consuming stage

3. Output Mechanism (Effector Mechanism)

• Executes the chosen response through muscle movement
• Involves motor programs and muscle memory
• Results in visible sporting action

Question 3

How does Welford’s model differ from the black box model?

Answer 3

Question 4

Outline the components associated with sensory input.

2.3

Answer 4

1. The senses relay information about the environment to the brain
2. This information is then interpreted by the brain based on past experiences of similar situations and held in the LTM

Exteroreceptors provide information from outside of the body, about the external environment, like touch, pressure, temperature. Located in the skin, oral cavity, nose, ears etc.

Proprioreceptors: provide information about the position and posture of our body in space. They sense stimuli from the muscles, tendons and joints, as well as from the vestibular apparatus (balance). Located in muscles, joints, tendons etc.

Interoreceptors: sensory nerve ending receptors. provide information about the events in the viscera. E.g receptors sensing blood pressure, plasma osmolarity, blood glucose concentration.

Question 5

Outline the the detection process of a signal in the signal-detection process.

2.4

Answer 5

Step 1: Sensory Input

• Visual, auditory, or other sensory information enters the system
• The brain begins initial processing of the stimulus

Step 2: Pattern Recognition

• The brain compares incoming information with stored patterns
• Previous experience helps identify relevant signals

Step 3: Decision Making

• Athletes must: Set a criterion level for response, Decide if the stimulus matches their criterion, Choose whether to respond
• Many athletes set their criterion level too high, = Missing important signals, or Too low, = Responding to too many false alarms

Question 6

Outline the factors affecting signal detection in the signal-detection process.

2.4

Answer 6

External factors:

• Background noise- non essential information, anything that is not part of the signal
• Stimulus Intensity- may impact whether we detect an important signal or not
• Sense organ efficiency- visual and auditory receptors are the most important in sports. Their efficient may have an impact on signal detection.

Internal factors

• Early signal detection- ability to perceive a signal from only partial information or pattern recognition
• Improving signal detection- by selective attention (block out irrelevant stimuli), can be improved through learning
• fatigue & anxiety levels, past experience

Question 7

Distinguish between the characteristics of short-term sensory store, short-term memory and long-term memory.

2.5

Answer 7

Question 8

Discuss the relationship between selective attention and memory.

2.6

Answer 8

Selective attention (SA)- Only relevant info. is passed to STM where it is held for sec| irrelevent info. blocked out

• operates in the short-term sensory store (STSS)

Filtering Mechanism/Information Selection

• SA ensures that information overload does not occur
• What we attend to is more likely to be remembered
• Important game moments get stored more effectively
• Crucial details are processed more deeply

Memory Enhancement

• Focused attention strengthens memory formation
• Better attention leads to clearer recall
• Enhanced processing of relevant information

How Memory Affects Attention

Guiding Attention

• Past experiences help direct attention to important cues
• Memory of patterns helps anticipate what to focus on
• Previous learning influences what we consider relevant

Processing Efficiency

• Stored knowledge helps filter information faster
• Recognition of familiar situations speeds up decision-making
• Experience helps prioritize attention allocation

Question 9

Compare different methods of memory improvement.

2.7

Answer 9

Brevity: giving a learner a small amount of information at a time to avoid overload & increase retention

Clarity: Ensuring that info. is straightforward & unambiguous/avoid trying to learn or teach two similar but distinct items in the same session, as the memory of one may interfere with the memory of the other to enhance comprehension

Chunking: Breaking down information into smaller, manageable/meanable groups to increases retention by reducing STM load

Organization: Structuring info. logically & meaningfully to improve memory by creating a structured framework.

Association: Linking new information with familiar concepts or experiences to simplify complex info.

Practice: Repeatedly performing tasks or recalling information. Reinforces memory through repetition. Strengthens neural pathways, improving recall speed and accuracy.

Rehearsal: Mentally or physically repeating information to embed it in memory. Involves mental visualization or physical repetition of plays or skills. Enhances long-term memory retention.

Coding: Using symbols, acronyms, or colors to represent information. Helps categorize and recall complex strategies. Creates mental shortcuts for faster recall.

Question 10

Define the term response time.

2.8

Answer 10

Response time- total time taken from the presentation of a stimulus to the completion of a movement in response to that stimulus.

• Response time = reaction time + movement time

Question 11

Outline factors that determine response time.

2.9

Answer 11

Question 12

Evaluate the concept of the psychological refractory period (PRP).

2.10

Answer 12

Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)- the delay in processing a second stimulus when it’s presented shortly after a first stimulus.

Strengths

• Provides clear explanation for response delays
• Helps understand performance limitations
• Guides training program design
• Explains why certain skills need to be automated

Limitations

• Individual differences in PRP duration
• Difficulty in measuring precise effects in real sports situations
• Complex interaction with other psychological factors
• May oversimplify actual neural processes

Question 13

Describe a motor programme.

2.11

Answer 13

Motor programme- pre-programmed set of instructions stored in our brain that controls how we perform movement patterns.

• way in which our brains control our movements.

Executive Motor Program

• Contains the basic pattern of movement
• Determines the order of actions
• Sets the timing of different movement components

Subroutines

• Smaller units of movement within the larger program
• Can be modified based on the situation
• Allow for flexibility in movement execution

Question 14

Compare motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives.

2.12

Answer 14

Question 15

Outline the role of feedback in information processing models.

2.13

Answer 15

Question 16

Outline the role of feedback with the learning process.

2.14

Answer 16

Reinforcement Learning- Feedback used to reinforce correct actions and behaviors, helping the learner repeat successful performance. Strengthens neural pathways associated with correct actions & Enhances long-term retention of skills.

• Positive reinforcement: Encourages the repetition of a correct behavior (e.g., praising a well-executed shot).
• Negative reinforcement: Removes an adverse condition when the desired action is performed (e.g., reducing drills when an athlete improves).

Motivation- Feedback used to inspire and encourage the learner to continue practicing and improving. Keeps the learner engaged and focused on improvement & Builds confidence and reduces frustration.

• Intrinsic motivation: Arises from the satisfaction of achieving a goal.
• Extrinsic motivation: Comes from external rewards or recognition.

Adaptation to Performance- Feedback highlights areas for improvement, enabling learners to adapt and refine their performance. Helps athletes identify and correct errors & encourages continuous learning and development.

• Knowledge of results: Information about the outcome of an action (e.g., time taken for a sprint).
• Knowledge of performance: Information about the process of performing an action (e.g., arm movement in a tennis serve).

Punishment- Negative feedback aimed at discouraging undesirable behavior or performance. Encourages discipline and focus, prevents reinforcement of incorrect habits. BUT Can demotivate or discourage if overused or delivered without constructive guidance.

• Direct punishment: Imposing a penalty for incorrect actions (e.g., extra drills for lack of effort).
• Indirect punishment: Withdrawing privileges as a consequence (e.g., benching a player for repeated mistakes).