NS6: PS Flashcards
what hormone is released during stressful situations
Cortisol is a hormone released during stressful situations. As such, it serves as a biological marker of stress
how do you establish a causal relationship
define a correlational study
In order to establish a causal relationship, there must be a temporal relationship established in which the process of one variable has an effect on the other, generally supported by correlation.
Correlational study (study that attempts to determine if there is simply a relationship between two variables. The predictor variable is the correlational studies analog to an independent variable, while the criterion variable is an analog to a dependent variable.
types of religious organizations (3)
State religion: includes most members of a society, is officially recognized, and may not tolerate other religions
Theocracy: government based on religious principles and run by religious figures
Cult: relatively small religious organization that has beliefs and practices that are typically far outside of what a society regards as normal or even acceptable; if it survives and grows, it can become a major religion
From a functional sociological perspective, how does religion contribute to society?
religion can give people meaning and purpose for their lives. It can bring people together (or inversely, pull them apart) and create a means for social change (or inversely, social control).
In this way, religion is a powerful social institution that can have significant influence over people and society.
what is religiosity
Religiosity is a term that refers to the extent to which religion and religious ideas influence a particular society, group, or individual.
Strong religiosity is associated with more acceptance and greater use of emotion-focused strategies to manage reactions to events.
parts of the brain
- frontal lobe
- amgydala
Frontal lobe: serves as the emotional control center of the brain; dedicated to problem solving, decision making, and personality
The amygdala is part of the limbic system and is the brain’s center for emotions and emotional behavior, memory, and survival instincts (ie response to fear and aggression).
parts of the brain
- thalamus
- anterior cingulate gyrus
- hippocampus
The thalamus is involved in relaying sensory and motor information to the rest of the brain.
The anterior cingulate gyrus is involved in regulating autonomic processes in the body.
The hippocampus is more closely involved with memory.
altruism
vs. kin selection
Altruism is a choice made to benefit the greater good, or the community as a whole.
Kin selection is acting in a way that promotes the health and well-being of family members.
Define the following:
- phenomenological research study
- demographic shift
phenomenological research study attempts to draw conclusions based on an accumulation of subjective responses of participants to a particular event or situation they have experienced
Demographic shift: shift: brought about by changes in birth rates, death rates, and migration of individuals into (immigration) and out of (emigration) the society
define the following:
- observational
- retrospective study
Observational studies draw inferences from a sample regarding the effects of an independent variable on a population, but where the independent variable is not specifically manipulated by the researcher.
Retrospective study: an observational study type where we look back at information in the past to try and find a trend between events in the past and current outcomes
define the following:
- btwn subject design
- within subject design
Between-subjects design (participants are randomly assigned to to an experimental group in the study, such that a participant only participates in one group),
Within-subjects design (also known as repeated-measures design, it is when a participant is exposed to every level of the independent variable
– Gives you higher power because you are using more “subjects” in your study by using the same person in multiple conditions, and that you decrease individual difference effects seen in between-subjects designs.)
define the following:
- prospective study
- meta analysis
Prospective study: a study where we follow groups of people and see how their behavior in that time influence future outcome
Meta-analysis is a statistical technique involving the aggregation of smaller studies pertaining to a certain research question in order to draw a conclusion that is statistically stronger than those of the individual studies.
types of variables
- in/dependent
- dichotomous
- continuous
- ordinal
Independent variables are the variables in an experiment that are manipulated.
Dependent variables are the outcome of adjusting the independent variables.
Dichotomous variables only have two categories.
Continuous variables have an infinite number of categories.
Ordinal variables can be ranked to allow for comparisons.
define the following:
- anhedonia
- alogia
- asociality
- avolition
Anhedonia is a symptom of depression and means “inability to feel pleasure.”
Alogia is the inability to speak.
Asociality is the lack of motivation or desire to engage in social activity.
Avolition is a lack of interest in goal-directed behavior.
transtheoretical model of change
refers to the 5 stages that a person may go through to make a change to their behavior
Stage 1: Precontemplation – person is unaware of the problem (depression) and does not see the need to change
Stage 2: Contemplation – person recognizes that there is a problem and is beginning to think about fixing it
Stage 3: Preparation – person is aware of the problem (depression) and is actively planning to change
Stage 4: Action – person is implementing their plan to change behavior
Stage 5: Maintenance – person actively maintains their behavior and finds success
Relapse: theoretical addition – person successfully makes a change but begins to experience the problem again after a period of time
define the following:
- reciprocal determinism
- extinction
- primary reinforcers
Reciprocal Determinism: behavior, personal factors, and environment all influence our attitudes
Extinction, in the vocabulary of operant conditioning, means the gradual elimination of a behavior when the reward or punishment system is taken away.
Primary reinforcers are biologically based and naturally reinforcing
define the following:
- overgeneralization
- stimulus discrimination
- compliance
- herd mentality
Overgeneralization occurs when a specific stimulus comes to be paired with similar stimuli.
Stimulus discrimination is a process in conditioning in which the response comes to be paired with more specific stimuli
Compliance is going along with an explicit request, whether or not you agree with it.
Herd mentality: inability to think for oneself or question authority
define the following:
- social reproduction
- social influence
Social reproduction is the perpetuation of social norms through socialization and social institutions. Two major socializing forces are family and peers.
Social influence occurs when an individual’s emotions, opinions, or behaviors are affected by others.
Social proof
Social proof, also known as informational social influence, is a psychological phenomenon where people assume the actions of others in an attempt to reflect correct behavior for a given situation (usually a situation that the individual perceives to be ambiguous).
Others are the expert, especially those we perceive to have the history or knowledge to provide the “best” advice.
elaboration likelihood model
theory that describes the ways in which persuasive information may be processed
Under the central route, persuasion will likely result from a person’s careful consideration of the merits of persuasive information.
Under the peripheral route, persuasion results from a person’s association with positive or negative cues such as the attractiveness of the message source and its related presentation.
stages of demographic transition
type of demographic shift
Stage 1: a society is preindustrial and has high fertility and mortality rates
Stage 2: a society sees significant enough improvements in healthcare, sanitation, nutrition, and wages that the mortality rate drops. However, the fertility rate remains high, meaning that the population rapidly expands
Stage 3: a society sees a decrease in the fertility rate due to a move from an agricultural to an industrial economy, as well as improvements in contraception and women’s rights
– in order for children to be productive in society, they must go to school for many years. Furthermore, they may need to be supported by their parents for longer than they formerly were, which encourages families to have fewer children.
Stage 4: a society becomes fully industrialized and both fertility and mortality rates are low.
