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MCAT > KHAN 300 > Flashcards

KHAN 300 Flashcards

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1
Q

fovea

A

central region of macula that has a high density of cones; NO RODS

the fovea is directly involved in color sensation and its distribution of receptors varies across different species

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2
Q

optic disc

A

aka optic nerve head

point of exit for ganglion cell axons leaving the eye.

blind spot bc no rods or cones cover it

The ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve after they leave the eye

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3
Q

Conjunctiva

A

mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye and lines the insides of the eyelid

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4
Q

cornea

A

transparent, thick sheet of fibrous tissue at the front of the eye (anterior) that begins bending incoming light; also protects the eye

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5
Q

Sclera

A

thick sheet of white fibrous tissue covering the posterior 5/6th of the eyeball; attachment point for muscles

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6
Q

anterior chamber

A

space filled w aqueous humor, providing pressure to maintain eyeball shape and medium for nutrients to supply the cornea and iris

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7
Q

pupil

A

opening in the center of the iris through which light enters the eyeball

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8
Q

iris

A

contracts / constricts and relaxes / dilates to change the size of the pupil; gives the eye color

muscle that controls it is called SPHINCTER MUSCLES

stimulants dilate pupils and depressants (like opioids) cause constricted pupils

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9
Q

lens

A

elastic part of the eye that focuses light onto the fovea

muscle that controls it is called CILIARY BODY (consisting of ciliary muscle, choroid, and ciliary ring)

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10
Q

ciliary muscle

A

muscle that constricts / dilates in order to reduce / increase tension on the attached suspensatory ligaments, making the lens rounder / flatter to focus on nearer / farther objects

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11
Q

Posterior chamber

A

area btwn the back of the iris and the back of the lens; filled w aqueous humor secreted by the epithelium of ciliary muscle

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12
Q

retina

A

innermost layer of the eye, filled w photoreceptors

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13
Q

vitreous chamber

A

space filled w vitreous humor (jelly-like substance) that provides pressure to maintain eyeball shape and medium for nutrients inside of the eyeball

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14
Q

macula

A

central region of retina w higher concentration of cones

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15
Q

choroid

A

black network of blood vessels that nourish the retina and absorb all light that passes through the retina

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16
Q

retinal disparity

A

Eyes are ~2.5 inches apart which allows humans to get slightly different views of objects of world around. Gives humans an idea on depth.

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17
Q

What is convergence in regards to optics?

A

Convergence: Gives humans an idea of depth as well based on how much eyeballs are turned. Gives humans a sense of depth.
§ Things far away - muscles of eyes relaxed.
§ Things close to us - muscles of eyes contract.

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18
Q

Light adaption, up vs. down regulation?

A

§ Down regulation: light adaptation. When it is bright out, pupils constrict (less light enters back of eye), and the desensitization of rods and cones
become desensitized to light)

§ Up regulation: dark regulation. Pupils dilate-, rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules

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19
Q

What is the absolute threshold of sensation?

vs. difference threshold
vs. subliminal stimuli

A

The minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

The smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time.

stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation.

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20
Q

What is bottom up processing?

A

Begins with stimulus. Stimulus influences what we perceive (our perception).

o No preconceived cognitive constructs of the stimulus (never seen it before)

o Data driven. And the stimulus directs cognitive awareness of what you’re looking at (object)

o Inductive Reasoning.

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21
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

vs. inductive

A

DEDUCTIVE: starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion
eg. All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal.

INDUCTIVE: broad generalizations from specific observations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data.
eg. The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.

** Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. Here’s an example: “Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. Therefore, all grandfathers are bald.” The conclusion does not follow logically from the statements.

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22
Q

What is top down processing?

A

uses background knowledge influences perception. Ex. Where’s waldo

o Theory driven. Perception influenced by our expectation

o Deductive Reasoning

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23
Q

Are rods normally turned on or off?

A

Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally rod is turned on, but when light hits them, they turns off.

When rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve and enters the brain.

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24
Q

phototransduction cascade

A

details what happens when light hits rod / cone

light hits rod, causing it to turn OFF > bipolar cell turns ON > retinal ganglion cell turns ON > optic nerve > brain

when light hits enough rods, the subsequent “turning off” triggers the production of a signal that gets sent to the brain

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25
Q

define the following:

  • photopic vision
  • mesotopic vision
  • scotopic vision
  • protein in cones
  • protein in rods
A

occurs at levels of normal to high light levels; relies on cones

occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones.

occurs at levels of very low light; relies on rods

photopsin

rhodopsin

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26
Q

Rods vs. cones in sensitivity to light and recovery time?

A

Rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones. Better at detecting light - telling us whether light is present i.e. black/white vision.

Rods have slow recovery time vs. cones have fast recovery time. Takes a while to adjust to dark - rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt to change quickly (fire more frequently)

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27
Q

Parvocellular vs magnocellular pathway

A

parvo is slower than magno for visual processing

parvo = WHAT
utilized for high acuity and color selectivity

magno = WHERE
utilized for location, movement and spatial relations

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28
Q

Do higher or lower wavelength penetrate farther in the cochlea?

A

§ Smaller wavelength = greater frequency.

§ Higher wavelength (smaller frequency) = travel farther = penetrate deeper into the cochlea.

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29
Q

gate theory of pain

A

non-painful input closes the “gates” to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system

30
Q

What part of the olfactory system do humans not have?

A

In humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones.

31
Q

Which taste receptors rely on GPCR or ion channels?

A
  • Sweet, umami, and bitter cells rely on GPCR receptors.

* Sour and salty rely on ion channels.

32
Q

Which senses do not synapse in the thalamus?

A

Taste/Smell - Do not synapse on the thalamus. Oribofrontal cortex is first place of integration.

They are ipsilateral (same side of body) instead of contralateral (diff side of body).

33
Q

Alcohol function?

A

The most popular depressant is alcohol.
§ Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control
§ Lack of coordination, slurring of speech
§ Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories)

34
Q

Barbiturates function?

A

used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) Depress your CNS. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures)
§ Not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgement and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death (most drugs w/ alcohol are bad)

35
Q

Benzodiazepines function?

A

most commonly prescribed suppressant

§ Enhance your brain’s response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged.
§ 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety.
§ -zelam, -zolam
§ Benzodiazepines and alcohol bind to a site on the GABAA receptor complex that regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex.

36
Q

Stimulant examples?

A

Caffeine, Amphetamines (Adderall), Methamphetamines (Meth), MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC (Marijuana/Cannabis - also a hallucinogen/depressant)

37
Q

Stimulant effects?

A

Effect is similar to stress, increased glucose metabolism in brain.
§ Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake.
§ Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release.
§ Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate).
§ Nicotine acts on acetylcholine
§ THC works on anandamide. Increase dopamine and GABA activity.

38
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Examples:, mescaline, peyote, PCP, LSD, psilocybin (active ingredient in mushroom)

o Distorted perceptions/hallucinations - seeing or hearing things different from how things actually are.
o Heighted sensations. Based on reality but is different from what’s going on in the world around
o Can give them energy or calm them down
o Emotional responses - Feeling of connectedness and mood swings (changing
moods)

39
Q

Opiate vs. opioid?

A

o Opiates - natural
o Opioids - synthetic

Like depressants: Decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety).

o Analgesic - reduce perception of pain
o Lead to euphoria, why taken recreationally
o An opiate binds to opioid receptors by mimicking endorphins.
o Vasodilator, and pupillary constriction
o Die by respiratory failure

40
Q

Where is dopamine produced?

A

Brain releases neurotransmitter called dopamine. Produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), in the midbrain.
o VTA sends dopamine to the amygdala (controls emotions), nucleus accumbens (NAcc , controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning), and hippocampus (part of the temporal lobe, involved in memory
formation).
o NAcc, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway.

41
Q

What happens to serotonin when dopamine is increased?

A

At same time dopamine goes up (increase sense of euphoria), serotonin goes down.
o Serotonin - partially responsible for feelings of satiation. So if serotonin goes down, you are less likely to be satiated or content.

42
Q

Exogenous cues vs endogenous

A

Exogenous /External Cues: Don’t have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention

Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues - Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it

43
Q

broad bent selective theory of attention

vs treisman

vs deutch

A

In the broadbent model, there is a complete filter. Only important stuff gets through.

Treisman model has an attenuated filter. Stuff isn’t filtered out completely, just turned down in comparison to the important stuff

Deutch says that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness.

44
Q

retrograde amnesia

vs anterograde

A

inability to recall info previously encoded

vs. inability to encode new memories

45
Q

Type I vs. Type II error?

A

Type I error = false positive,

type II error = false negative

46
Q

What is prosody?

A

Concerned with larger units of speech like syllables. Contribute to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm.

Prosody may reflect various features of the speaker or the utterance: the emotional state of the speaker; the form of the utterance (statement, question, or command); the presence of irony or sarcasm; emphasis, contrast, and focus; or other elements of language that may not be encoded by grammar or by choice of vocabulary.

47
Q

Universalism (language)

A

thought determines language completely. Your thought dictates language.

A Universalist believes that human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions shape human language.

basically the opposite of linguistic determinism

48
Q

Chomsky’s nativist perspective on language

A

children are born with ability to learn language thanks to their language acquisition device

supports the idea of a “critical period” where a child is most able to learn a language; After that, becomes harder because LAD only operates in that critical period. Once you start using it, LAD starts specializing for your language and unable to detect others

49
Q

Skinner’s behaviorist theory of language

A

language is learned

children aren’t born with anything, they only acquire language through operant conditioning
eg. Child learns to say “mama” because every time
they say that, mom reinforces child

!! But doesn’t explain how they can produce words they’ve never heard before or unique sentences

50
Q

Vygotsky’s Interactionist approach to language

A

aka social interactionist approach

Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language.

Children’s desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language

51
Q

Lexicon

A

A set of vocabulary items. entire set of morphemes in a language

o ASL that would mean the total combinations of hand movements, locations, facial expressions, and body language that help them to form meaningful words.

o Lexical access refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory.

52
Q

Limbic system and included structures?

- HAT hippo

A

A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. Experts can’t agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system.

  • Responsible for storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions.
  • Structures of the limbic system: Acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo): Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Thalamus, and Hippocampus.
53
Q

Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

A

destruction of amgydala leads to a mellowing effect on the individual or “drunken behaviors”

eg. hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behaviour.

54
Q

If hippocampus is destroyed, what happens?

A

Hippocampus - key role in forming new memories.

Convert STM (Short term memory) > LTM (long term memory). If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can’t make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

55
Q

Sympathetic nervous system results?

A

FIGHT OR FLIGHT

§ pupils dilate (want to be able to see better/bring in more light),

§ Decrease in salivation (nervous when you are doing public speaking)

§ increase respiration rate (more O2)

§ increase heart rate (more O2)

§ Increase glucose release (more energy)

§ Increase adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine

§ Decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert energy to other areas)

56
Q

Parasympathetic results?

A

REST AND DIGEST

§ Pupils constrict

§ Increased Salvation

§ Decrease respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal)

§ Increase glucose storage (digesting food)

§ Decrease in adrenalin

§ Increase digestion.

57
Q

Lazarus theory?

A

experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled)

§ If we label emotion as good, it is positive
§ If we label emotion as bad, it is negative
§ How we label event is based on cultural/individual differences.
§ Event is the same and depending on label it produces two very different emotions

58
Q

Emotion theory recap

A

§ James-Lange: physiological -> emotion

§ Cannon-Bard: physiological + emotion

§ Schachter-Singer: physiological + cognitive -> emotion

§ Lazarus: cognitive -> emotion + physiological

59
Q

appraisal of stress

A

PRIMARY: assessing stress in present situation as either irrelevant / benign or positive / bad or negative

if negative …

SECONDARY: evaluation of the individual’s ability to cope w the situation; Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it)
§ Harm: what damage has already been caused
§ Threat: How much damage could be caused
§ Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered.

60
Q

Are pain and temperature receptors fast or slow?

A

Slow
§ Nocireceptors and thermoreceptors = slow
§ Position/Vibration/Touch (Mechanoreceptors) = Fast

61
Q

Obsessions vs. compulsions

A

§ Obsessions - thoughts that occur involuntarily, often unwelcome. Occur repeatedly.

§ Compulsions are activities that one must do and are often related to an obsession.

62
Q

Cluster A, B, and C personality disorders

A

Cluster A (odd and eccentric traits), Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic traits), and Cluster C (anxiety and fearful).

There can be an overlap between the clusters.

A: paranoid, schizoid
B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
C: avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive personality

63
Q

Co-variation model

A

3 cues of Kelley’s co-variation model: consensus (people), distinctiveness (situation), consistency (time)

Low Consensus, Low Distinctiveness, High Consistency = Personal Attribution

High Consensus, High Distinctiveness, High Consistency = Stimulus Attribution

High Consensus, Low Distinctiveness, Low Consistency = Circumstance Attribution

64
Q

Peter principle

A

where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further)

65
Q

3 main assumptions to rational choice theory?

A

§ 1. Completeness (every action can be ranked), ex. A is preferable to B which is preferable to C. (C is not then preferable to A). (A>B>C)

§ 2. Transitivity (since A is preferable to B is preferable to C, therefore, A is also preferable to C). (same as math A >B >C, Therefore A>C).

§ 3.) Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a fourth option X, won’t change order of how I ranked first 3 options. Just add it in to existing order. (A>B>C, & B>X>C, Therefore: A>B>X>C).

66
Q

Fertility vs. fecundity?

A

Fertility is natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population.

Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of a female.

67
Q

polygamy vs Polygyny vs polyandry

A

more than one romantic partner

more than one wife

woman has multiple husbands

68
Q

Self-Report Study?

A

Cheap and not labor intensive

any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on.

Potential for poor reliability, vulnerable to subjective interpretation, hard to compare w/ those from other measures

69
Q

Repression vs. suppression?

A

Suppression is conscious

Repression is unconscious

70
Q

Bipolar 1 vs. 2

A

You must have had at least one manic episode and one major depressive episode to be diagnosed with bipolar 1 disorder.

Bipolar 2 disorder involves a major depressive episode lasting at least two weeks and at least one hypomanic episode.

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