MISC Flashcards
ver 1 + 2
oxygen containing compounds and their tendency for being reduced / oxidized
alcohols (most reduced / least oxidized) to aldehydes and ketones (intermediate reduction / oxidation) to carboxylic acids (least reduced / most oxidized)
primary alc can be oxidized to _____ by a (weak/strong/either) oxidizing agent.
a secondary alcohol will be oxidized to a _____ by a (weak/strong/either) oxidizing agent.
an aldehyde will be oxidized to _____ by a (weak/strong/either) oxidizing agent
A primary alcohol can be oxidized to an aldehyde by a mild oxidizing agent or to a carboxylic acid by a strong oxidizing agent.
A secondary alcohol will be oxidized to a ketone by either a mild or a strong oxidizing agent.
A strong oxidizing agent will likewise oxidize an aldehyde to a carboxylic acid.
a strong reducing agent can reduce _____ to ____ while a weak one ______.
what about mild and strong ones?
A strong reducing agent can reduce a carboxylic acid directly to an alcohol, while weak reducing agents will not reduce carboxylic acids at all.
Both mild and strong reducing agents can reduce aldehydes and ketones to primary and secondary alcohols, respectively.
how do competitive inhibitors affect Km and Vmax? what about noncomp or uncomp?
Competitive inhibitors increase Km while Vmax is unchanged.
Noncompetitive inhibitors decrease Vmax while Km is unchanged.
Uncompetitive inhibitors decrease both Vmax and Km.
hardy weinberg equation
use allele frequencies to predict the distribution of phenotypes in the population and vice versa
If p and q are the only two alleles of a gene present in the population, then p + q = 1.
Squaring the equation yields: (p + q)2 = 12 → p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.
This second equation allows us to connect genotypes and phenotypes, because the p2 and q2 terms correspond to individuals homozygous for p and q, respectively, while the 2pq term gives the frequency of heterozygotes.
where are neurotransmitters found
Neurotransmitters are only found in synapses, not in cerebral spinal fluid
pathway of verbal inputs
Verbal inputs of each ear go to the auditory complex of the opposite side BUT are processed in the matching hemisphere.
eg. Verbal inputs from the LEFT ear go to the auditory cortex of the RIGHT hemisphere but are processed in the LEFT hemisphere.
aging does NOT diminish ___
but does diminish _____.
Aging does NOT diminish the ability to retrieve general information.
Aging DOES diminish a person’s
- Capacity to acquire new declarative information
- Capacity for controlling mental processes
- Ability to cope with Alzheimer’s
What happens when you internalize neuroreceptors?
Internalizing means downregulating receptors on the post synaptic membrane (ie decreasing the available number of receptors)
Leads to desensitization to neurotransmitters as you will have less receptors in the post synaptic membrane that can transmit the signal
Instinctual drift
phenomenon where established habits, learned using operant techniques, are eventually replaced by innate behaviors → ie learned behavior “drifts” to the organism’s species-specific instinctual behavior
Thus, when training an animal, you would not want to train it in a manner that goes against their instincts → ie. you would avoid instinctual drift
define the following:
- serial position effect
- primacy effect
- recency effect
Serial position effect: beginning and ends of a list are recalled with better accuracy than the middle
Primacy effect: better recall of initial items in a list
Recency effect: better recall of later items in a list
exocrine glands secrete their products into ____, while endocrine glands secrete their products into _____
Exocrine glands secrete their products into DUCTS (external) while endocrine glands secrete their products into BLOOD (internal).
why do actin microfilaments do not change in length when the sarcomere shortens in muscle contractions?
They are capped at Z-line on one end, and capped by cytochalasins on the other end.
sugar reaction + chemical formula
O2 + alkane/sugar → CO2 + H2O
Note stoichiometry
Sugars will always have the form CnH2nOn
endo v exothermic reactions
Endothermic reaction = reactants + heat yields products
Exothermic reaction = reactants yield products + heat
Describe the definition of and the trend of Electronegativity on the periodic table?
Electronegativity, affinity of a particular atom for electrons.
Increases from left to right and bottom to top
Electronegativity differences lead to ionic character (ie dipoles) btwn molecules
Define atomic radius and its trend on the periodic table?
As more protons in the nucleus, the valence electrons are more attracted to nucleus and are closer.
Atomic radius decreases from left to right and increases from top to bottom
Atomic radius has a greater influence on acidity than electronegativity → smaller radius = greater acidity
Define ionization energy and its trend on the periodic table?
Energy necessary to release the outermost electron from an atom.
Increases from left to right across a period and bottom to top on a group.
As atoms decrease in size, the valence electrons become more strongly attracted to the nucleus, and more energy is required to liberate an electron
Describe metallic character and its trend on periodic table?
The ease with which an atom loses valence electrons. Atoms with low ionization energies are strongly metallic.
As ionization energy increases, metallic character decreases
Electron affinity and its trend?
Tendency of an atom to gain an additional electron. Same trend as electronegativity
Electromagnetic waves
- know the order from shortest to longest wavelenth (in cm)
Shorter wavelength = greater frequency = more energy
Vs. Longer = smaller = less
In order of shortest wavelength to longest (in cm) Gamma ray = 10^ (-12) X-ray = 10^ (-10) Ultraviolet = 10^ (-8) Visible ROYGBIV = 10^ (-6) Infrared = 10^ (-5) Microwave = 10^ (-2) Radio = 10^ (3)
Eg. Find the pH of an acidic 0.5M solution with Ka 8 x 10^ (-8).
Given that log 2 = 0.30 and pH = 0.5 pKa - 0.5 log [HA]
Acidic therefore, pH < 7 already
Given Ka = 8 x 10^ (-8) → find pKa bc 8 - log(8) = 8 - 3 (log 2) and since log 2 = 0.3 then = 8 - 0.9 = 7.1
Given 0.5M, then [HA] = 0.5 → log [HA] = log (0.5) = log (1 / 2) = log 1 - log 2 = 0 - 0.3 = -0.3
Plug into pH = 0.5 pKa - 0.5 log [HA] equation → (0.5)(7.1) - (0.5)(-0.3) = 3.7
FINAL ANSWER: pH of the solution is 3.7
log 2 = ?
log 3 = ?
log 5 = ?
Log 2 = 0.3
Log 3 about 0.5
Log 5 = 0.7
Acid rain
contains airborne Lewis acids, including oxidized nonmetals, hydrated nonmetal oxides, and electron pair acceptors
acid / base pH relationship
“Acid” indicates a pH less than 7
- Weak acid will NOT fully dissociate, indicating a pH range of 3.5 to 7
- Strong acid WILL fully dissociate, indicating a pH less than 3.5
“Base” indicates a pH greater than 7
- Weak base will NOT fully dissociate, indicating a pH range of 7 to 10.5
- Strong base WILL fully dissociate, indicating a pH greater than 10.5
litmus paper
Litmus paper turns BLUE for bases, and RED for acids
Rf
indicator of how much the substance travels on thin layer chromatography over the total length of the solvent front.
The stationary phase is generally POLAR, meaning that nonpolar substances will travel farther due to lack of interaction and achieve a higher Rf value.
In contrast, polar substances will interact strongly with the stationary phase, meaning that they do not travel much, resulting in a lower Rf value.
What is a simplification of the pathway memories take when in the brain?
sensory memory in a projection area > working/short-term memory in the hippocampus > (maybe) long term memory in the cerebral cortex or hippocampus
what are the three selves according to impression theorists?
the authentic self, the ideal self, and the tactical self
define the following:
- functional fixedness
- normality
- fine motor skills
- mixed inhibition
Functional fixedness: inability to consider using an object in a nontraditional manner
Normality = M * (# of H’s that dissociate)
Fine motor skills: involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes; specific and deliberate
Mixed inhibition: when an inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex, but has a different affinity for each
Why is it hard to wake a child out of a night-terror?
Bc night terrors occur during slow wave / deep sleep
gastrin v renin
Gastrin: secreted by G cells; causes parietal cells to secrete HCl and also stimulates stomach to contract
Renin: released by juxtaglomerular apparutus; stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
What glands release the peptide hormones? (6; p4tb)
pituitary, pancreas, parathyroid and thyroid C cells, placenta and blastocyst
type 1 fibers v type 2 (2)
type of skeletal muscle
Type 1 fibers: slow twitch; rely on anaerobic respiration; good for long-endurance fears and fatigue less → eg. running a marathon
Type 2 fibers: fast twitch; better for short bursts of energy (therefore has higher contractile velocity), but fatigue more quickly
- Type A: rely partially on mitochondria, therefore only MOSTLY anaerobic → eg. swimming a lap as fast as you can
- Type B: rely even less mitochondria, therefore ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY anaerobic → eg. jumping as high as you can
glycolysis reaction
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD+ yields 2pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH
Where in the circulatory system can you lose heat?
what two states exist for a cooperative enzyme?
which have higher boiling points: carboxylic acids or alcohols?
Where in the circulatory system can you lose heat?
Capillaries bc not as much insulation there
what two states exist for a cooperative enzyme?
low-affinity tense state (T) and high-affinity relaxed state (R)
which have higher boiling points: carboxylic acids or alcohols?
carboxylic acids because of hydrogen bonding
AA weight
Average AA weight is 110 Da
what is the difference between SDS native, reducing, and non-reducing?
native doesn’t denature at all
non-reducing willl break the quaternary structure
– reducing will break the quaternary structure and disulfide bridges
Social constructionism theory
depends on how the “society” has “constructed” the knowledge in your brain
Brute Facts: fact that cannot be explained; rejecting this means that everything can be explained → eg. natural phenomena
Institutional facts: fact that is contingent on another fact → eg. dollar is worth more than a rupee, based on the foreign exchange rate
Culture
Non-material: non-physical elements in a culture → eg. belief in a certain god
Material: objects involved in a certain way of life → eg. pottery
– Symbolic: type of non-material culture that consists of elements that have meaning only in the mind
define the following:
- spatial inequality
- environmental justice
- shadowing
Spatial inequality: unequal access to resources and variable quality of life within a population or geographical distribution
Environmental justice: equal treatment of all people with regard to prevention and relief from environmental and health hazards
Shadowing: repeating information immediately after you have heard it
Proximal v distal stimuli
a lightbulb (distal stimuli) sends out photons that induce a signal we perceive to be light (proximal)
How does the translation of the mRNA know where to take place?
Once translation begins in the cytoplasm, the protein must have a signal sequence that allows it to bind to the ER and continue on the pathway to the membrane.
where are secreted v membrane v cytosolic proteins made?
The general rule is that any protein created from free ribosomes will be released into the cytosol, while proteins created in the Rough Endoplasmic reticulum will either be secreted or incorporated into the cell membrane.
Note that protein modification usually occurs in the Endoplasmic reticulum and/or golgi, which means that the protein is probably created from the ER.
– modification includes signal sequences that inform the golgi where to send the final protein product
Naming of alpha/beta sugars for the sake of glycosidic bonds
Be able to draw axial / equatorial attachments to a cyclic sugar, it’ll help with identification
Look at the OH and CH2OH groups of the sugar (it’s fine if there’s a bond, just use your intuition)
- If the attachments are the same (cis), then it will be BETA
- Otherwise, if they’re different (trans), then it will be ALPHA
what is the composition of filtrate that passes thru the kidneys
Glomerular filtrate is the same as plasma of blood, the only difference being that it does not contain blood cells. It contains proteins, glucose, creatinine, urea, uric acid and various ions such as Na+, K+, Cl-, and HCO-.
type of joints in the body (4)
Hinge joint: allows for movement in only one place; eg. elbow
Gliding joint: allow bones to slide past one another; eg. vertebrae in the spinal column
Ball and socket joint: allows the greatest range of motion; generally 360 degrees; eg. hips or shoulder
Saddle joint: formed btwn reciprocal concave and convex bones; they just “fit” together; eg carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
Diff btwn Series and parallel circuit elements (7)
Series vs Parallel
Same current vs same voltage drop
Diff voltage drop vs diff current
Increased equivalent resistance vs decreased
Decreased equivalent capacitance vs increased
larger resistors drain more power vs smaller
P = I2*R vs V2 / R
devices are dependent on one another vs independent
