NS2: PS Flashcards
Jean Piaget’s theory
- four stages
proposed that cognitive development occurs in four discrete stages
sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment → development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them
preoperational stage (ages 2-7): individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures → development of centriation (focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience); unable to comprehend conservation (idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape); and are egocentric ( they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own)
concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11): develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics; become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought
formal operational stage (age 12+): development of the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning
Erikson’s Eight Stages of psychosocial development
posited that each developmental stage is marked by a key conflict; resolution of this conflict promotes healthy development, while a lack of resolution can lead to related problems later in life
0 to 1 years: trust vs mistrust
1 to 3 years: autonomy vs shame/doubt
3 to 6 years: initiative vs guilt
6 to 12 years: industry vs inferiority
12 to 20 years: identity vs role confusion
20 to 30 years: intimacy vs isolation
40 to 65: generativity vs stagnation
65+: ego integrity vs despair
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
individuals must fulfill the lower needs (like physiological or safety needs) before being free to work towards fulfilling the higher needs, of which self-actualization is the highest
Pyramid shape, where the bottom layers are larger → (bottom to top): physiological, safety, love / belonging, esteem, self-actualization
Define the following:
- cultural relativism
- health behaviors
Cultural relativism is the principle that a person’s beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture.
Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends
Sigmund Freud’s Structural Model of the Psyche
Id: basic human instinctual drives; unconscious
Ego: contains preconscious, conscious, and unconscious elements; evolve from the id and deals w its impulses as soon as an adequate response is found
Superego: forms the organized part of the personality structure; mostly but not entirely unconscious
Gordon Allport’s three basic traits
Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives.
In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person’s behavior.
Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation
Quick Key Psychologist’s and their Experiments:
- Watson
- Bandura
John B. Watson’s Little Albert experiment involved the use of classical conditioning and stimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals and objects.
Albert Bandura, a social cognitive psychologist, famously conducted his “Bobo doll” experiments, which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior.
Quick Key Psychologist’s and their Experiments:
- Zimbardo
- Milgram
Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment focused on the effects of power and authority on individuals. Participants designated as “guards” were given power over participants designated as “prisoners,” and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior.
Milgram’s electric shock experiment also relates to authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the “others” in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked.
Solomon Asch Experiment
Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view, even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer.
Asch used a task in which a participant, along with several of Asch’s confederates, were told to judge the relative lengths of drawn lines.
The confederates would give a clearly-incorrect opinion regarding which line was shorter or longer, causing the participant (who did not know that the others in the room were “in on it”) to conform to this incorrect view in some cases.
Quick Key Psychologist’s and their Experiments:
- Eysenck
- Harlow
- Sharif
Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors.
Harry Harlow examined parent/child attachment, social isolation, and dependency in rhesus monkeys.
Muzafer Sharif’s Robber’s Cave experiment examined the intergroup conflicts that arise in response to competition over limited resources.
Key Brain Structures
- Brainstem
- Cerebellum
- Basal Ganglia
Brainstem: midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, and provides the connection from the brain to the spinal cord
– regulates crucial functions basic to the survival of the organism, such as like heart rate, respiration, sleep, and overall activation of the rest of the CNS
Cerebellum: found just underneath the occipital lobe; serves to direct complex coordinated movement, such as walking or playing the piano
Basal Ganglia: located just under the cortex and connect to both the brainstem and the cortical lobes; involved in several functions, including voluntary movement, habitual behaviors, learning, and emotion
Key Brain Structures
- four lobes of the cortices
The frontal lobe is associated with making judgments and regulating behavior as a part of executive functioning
The occipital lobe is most closely related to visual processing, as data from the optic nerves are sent directly there
The parietal lobe is associated with integrating various sensory input
Both the parietal and temporal lobes are important for language.
Key Brain Structures:
- five parts to the forebrain
amygdala, which processes memory, emotions, and decision-making
the hippocampus, which consolidates short-term memory into long-term memory
the hypothalamus, which is the major link between the nervous and endocrine systems via the pituitary gland
the pineal gland, which modulates sleep through melatonin productions
the thalamus, which relays sense and motor signals and regulates sleep and awareness
Limbic vs mesolimbic pathway
The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and several other structures, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and motivation.
It is distinct from the mesolimbic pathway (or reward pathway), which is located in the midbrain and plays a role in addiction.
Types of validity (4)
Internal validity refers to the degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from a study, which can include accounting for potential confounding variables
External validity describes the degree to which the findings of a study are generalizable to the population as a whole. Typically, this involves issues regarding the size and representativeness of the sample.
Face validity describes the extent to which a study appears to assess what it is intended to assess—that is, more or less, the degree to which it “seems right” to participants and researchers.
Content validity refers to whether a study comprehensively accounts for all the relevant facets of the phenomenon it is intended to investigate.
Types of Imaging:
- EEG
An EEG measures electrical impulses in the brain by covering the scalp with small sensors. Researchers can then present the subject with various stimuli and record which areas of the brain demonstrate increased electrical activity. Instead of measuring electrical activity, scientists can watch the level of blood flow in parts of the brain. By injecting a tracer molecule, scientists are able to image which parts of the brain are more active in response to certain stimuli. More active brain areas will see an increase in blood flow, and thus an increase in the tracer molecule.
Types of Imaging:
- MRIs
- fMRI
- sMRI
MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to image parts of the brain while avoiding the dangers of bombarding the body with ionizing radiation such as X-rays.
- basically used in soft tissue analysis
Functional MRI, or fMRI, is a functional neuroimaging technique which would allow the researchers to assess the operation of brain regions, not just their structure. It does so by analyzing the differences in oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentration in parts of the brain.
Vs. Structural MRI describes the shape, size and integrity of gray and white matter structures in the brain
Types of Imaging:
- PET
PET scans work by injecting the patient with a radioactive analogue of glucose, and then measuring the radioactive emissions from the body; work similarly to MRIs bc work on the principle that more active areas of the brain will show increased metabolism, and thus increase their uptake of glucose. Such uptake can then be converted into a false-color “heat map” of the brain to show areas of increased or decreased activity.
frequently used for imaging designed to detect cancer in any part of the body, due to the increased glucose flux through tumor cells
Types of Imaging:
- CT
CT scans use X-rays, but unlike a typical single two-dimensional X-ray film, CT machines use computer processing to take many X-ray measurements from multiple different angles, generating images that can be used for diagnosis. CT scans can provide high-resolution images, but unlike fMRI, CT is not useful for imaging processes in progress.
Cognitive appraisal theory
explains the mental processes which influence the stressors. According to the theory, stress is a two-way process
it involves the production of stressors by the environment
as well as the response of an individual subjected to these stressors
Thus, cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers the threat posed by and the resources needed to minimize the stressors affecting them.
Define the following:
- kinship of affinity
- impression management
A kinship of affinity is one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood, such as the other choices.
Impression management involves the control of information about oneself and is characterized by flattery, boasting, and ingratiation.
George Mead and the two versions of the “self”
The “me” is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking.
The “I” is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity. Essentially, the “me” is the social self and the “I” is one’s response to the “me.”
“Self” Terms to know:
- self-actualization
- self-awareness
- self-concept
Self-actualization refers to the individual’s striving to realize his or her potential and to develop inherent talents and capabilities.
Self-awareness is the “peak” level of consciousness, which signifies perception of the autobiographical character of a person’s life experience.
Self-concept is an individual’s mental model of his or her abilities and attributes.
“Self” Terms to know:
- self-efficacy
- self-esteem
- self-fulfilling prophecy
Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform adequately in a particular situation.
Self-esteem, often analogized to self-image, is the attitude which influences moods and exerts a powerful effect on an individual’s personal and social behaviors.
Self-fulfilling prophecy is the phenomenon wherein an individual believes an event will occur and, consciously or unconsciously, behaves in such a way as to bring about this prediction. The prophecy can be positive or negative.
“Self” Terms to know:
- self-handicapping
- self-perception
- self-serving bias
Self-handicapping is the process of developing (anticipating failure) behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize personal responsibility for the failure.
Self-perception theory posits that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do.
Self-serving bias is a set of biases in which people take credit for their successes and deny responsibility for failures.
Define the following:
- role
- role set
- role performance
- role strain
- role conflict
A role is a collection of behaviors, values, norms, attitudes, and beliefs that are expected of a person holding a particular status.
Every status can have multiple, varied roles attached to it → This collection of roles is known as a role set, where the different roles are often defined by one’s role partner, the person with whom one interacts within a given role.
Role performance refers to how well a person carries out a particular role.
Role strain involves a problem fitting into an existing role
Role conflict involves two roles coming into conflict
Stages of Grief
acronym Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance.
The stages are sequenced in the following order: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
Define the following:
- primary aging
- secondary aging
- ageism
Primary aging: describes the aging of biological factors and the physical body
Secondary aging: relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise
Ageism: prejudice or discrimination based on age
within-subject control
Using a within-subject control allows researchers to control for all factors inherent to the individual.
There are two fundamental advantages of the within-subject studies over between-subjects studies: (1) increased power and (2) a reduction in error variance associated with individual differences.
General Adaptation Syndrome
created by Hans Selye to describe the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress
general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body
- the nervous system
- the endocrine system
three distinctive stages in the syndrome’s evolution
- alarm reaction (AR)
- stage of resistance (SR)
- stage of exhaustion (SE)
Define the following:
- house money effect
- gambler’s fallacy
- prisoner’s dilemma
House Money Effect: think of this money as their own, which counters people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one’s own
Vs. Gambler’s Fallacy: if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa
Vs. Prisoner’s Dilemma: shows why two completely “rational” individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so; from psychological game theory
how does the presence of anxiety contribute to experimental outcomes
Subjects with anxiety began to focus more on the negative outcomes of the decisions they made as opposed to the potential rewards of those decisions
This neurological data would suggest there is a possible pathway by which background anxiety may lead to the development of reward desensitization and a maladaptive focus on negative cognitions.
Define the following “levels of measurement”:
- ratio LoM
- nominal LoM
- interval LoM
A ratio level of measurement is one in which there are a range of quantitative responses, ordered at equally-spaced intervals, and with it being possible to score 0 (complete absence of the quantity).
Vs. nominal level of measurement: numbers / words are used to classify the data
Vs. interval level of measurement: not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval
Define the following:
- assimilation
- separation
- marginalization
- integration
- acculturation
Assimilation is a strategy in which the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture.
– four factors that measure completeness of assimilation are geographic distribution, intermarriage, language acquisition, and socioeconomic status
Vs. Separation is rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture.
Vs. Marginalization involves the rejection of both cultures.
Vs. Integration involves identifying with both cultures.
Vs. acculturation: developing the ability to interact within a dominant culture while internally preserving facets of one’s own culture of origin
Three theories of social dysfunction
Anomie theory states that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society.
Vs. Relative deprivation theory posits that individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources.
Vs. General strain theory holds that individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors.
two types of poverty
Absolute: deprivation of basic needs like food, potable water, shelter, and healthcare
Relative: condition in which a person lacks the minimum income or resources needed to maintain the average standard of living for a community or society
theories of learning
also: define social cognitive theory
Conditioning: neural stimulus is learned to be associated with a certain behavior
Observational: aka social / vicarious learning; process of learning though watching others and imitating their behavior
– Function thru mirror neurons, which fire when we perform an action but also when we observe someone else performing that same action → important for physical actions and empathy
Social cognitive theory asserts that people learn by watching others, and if they see someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way too.
types of (social) sanctions
An informal sanction is an action by a peer or group of peers that is meant to make behavior more normative. It usually involves shaming or ridicule, which is considered a punishment
A formal positive sanction is an official reward for an action or behavior.
A formal negative sanction is an official punishment for an action or behavior
define bureaucracy
what is max weber’s six traits of an ideal bureaucracy
what is parkinson’s law
The term bureaucracy refers to a rational system of administration, control, and discipline that is characteristic of large organizations.
Max Weber’s SIX Traits of an Ideal Bureaucracy:
1) it has a formal hierarchical structure
2) it is managed via a set of defined, specific rules and regulations
3) it is organized by functional specialty, with different workers performing different, specialized tasks
4) it has a unified mission that is either “up-focused,” that is, to serve shareholders, a board, or some other entity that empowers it, or “in-focused”, that is, to serve itself through maximizing profit or maximizing market share
5) it is purposefully impersona
6) employment is based on technical qualifications, either advanced degrees or training
Parkinson’s Law: adds a seventh trait to Weber’s Six:
management and professional staff of bureaucracies tend to grow at a steady, predictable rate, regardless of what the organization is actually doing
define the following:
- globalization
- urbanization
- protectionism
Globalization: process by which the exchange of worldviews, products, services, ideas, and other cultural ideas leads to international integration; essens geographical constraints on businesses, ideas, and people → accounts for the spread of major international businesses and increased manufacturing
(+): in-season produce can be shipped from countries across the world, where produce that is currently out of season in the U.S. is in-season
(-): pollution associated w the business growth
Urbanization: shift of populations from rural to urban areas, mainly for the job opportunities found in major cities; usually accompanies globalization
Protectionism refers to a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative, which is inversely proportional to globalization.
