Neuro Flashcards

1
Q

The nervous system consists of the ________,
which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the
________, which includes the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems.

A

Central nervous system (CNS);

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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2
Q

These are the information processing units of the
nervous system and are made of 3 primary parts:
the cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon.

A

Neurons

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3
Q

Regarding the PNS, the ________ controls the actions of skeletal muscles, is responsible for voluntary movement, and responds to signals from the 5 senses; the ________ regulates involuntary activity (e.g., heartbeat, breathing) and has 2 subdivisions- the
sympathetic and parasympathetic.

A

Somatic nervous system;

autonomic nervous system

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4
Q
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are short fibers at the
end of a cell body that respond to
stimulation from other neurons and
carry this information toward the
cell body, while the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a
single fiber that carries information
away from the cell body.
A

Dendrites;

axon

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5
Q
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ division of the
autonomic nervous system
mobilizes the body's resources
and prepares for "fight or flight,"
while the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ system
deactivates the once active
organs and is active during
relaxation.
A

Sympathetic;

parasympathetic

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6
Q
The electrochemical process by
which information is received
and processed within a neuron,
whereby a cell becomes
electrically excited, "fires," and
creates a nerve impulse called
an action potential is referred to
as what?
A

Conduction

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7
Q
This part of the CNS
is responsible for
carrying information
between the brain
and the PNS.
A

Spinal

cord

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8
Q
The fact that, in any given
neuron, the action potential is
the same magnitude every time
it occurs is referred to as the
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_; basically, once the
minimal threshold of electrical
stimulation is reached, a
neuron fires.
A

All-Or-None Law

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9
Q

TRUE or FALSE: Stronger electrical stimulation generates more action potentials in a neuron and causes them to occur in a greater number of
neurons.

A
TRUE: Though size
and speed of an
action potential are
NOT related to
stimulation intensity
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10
Q
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is when one half of a
person's body is paralyzed,
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is when a person
experiences loss of use of all
limbs, and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is when
the lower extremities of a
person's body is paralyzed.
A

Hemiplegia;
quadriplegia;
paraplegia

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11
Q

What 2 factors
have an effect
on the speed of
conduction?

A

Diameter of
the axon and
myelin sheath

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12
Q
What term refers to the
process whereby
terminal buttons take up
and store excess
neurotransmitters for
future use?
A

Reuptake

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13
Q
What is the small
space that
separates
individual neurons
called?
A

Synapse
(or synaptic
cleft)

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14
Q
The breaking down of
unused
neurotransmitters into
inactive metabolites that
are eventually removed
as waste is called what?
A

Enzymatic degradation

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15
Q
This term means "partial
paralysis" and is
characterized by muscle
weakness without full
paralysis; one cause is
less severe damage to the
spinal cord.
A

Paresis

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16
Q
Neurotransmitters that have an
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ effect on
post-synaptic cells increase the
likelihood that an action
potential will occur, while those
with an \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ effect
decrease the chances of an
action potential occurring.
A

Excitatory;

inhibitory

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17
Q
This neurotransmitter causes
muscles to contract and is
associated with impairments in
voluntary movement; in the brain it
is involved in learning/memory, with
depletion of its receptors in the
cortex and hippocampus occurring
in Alzheimer's disease.
A

Acetylcholine

ACh

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18
Q
With respect to movement,
excess dopamine or an
increased sensitivity to
dopamine receptors is related
to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, while
degeneration of dopamine
secreting neurons is linked to
the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Tourette’s
syndrome;
Parkinson’s
disease

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19
Q

What are neurons
that secrete
acetylcholine
called?

A

Cholinergic

neurons

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20
Q
A lack of this
neurotransmitter is linked
to depression, OCD,
PTSD, and aggression,
while high levels play a
role in schizophrenia,
anorexia, and autism.
A

Serotonin

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21
Q
What 3
neurotransmitters
are grouped into the
class referred to as
catecholamines?
A
Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline),
epinephrine
(adrenaline), and
dopamine
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22
Q
The most abundant inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the CNS, low
levels of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are associated
with anxiety and Parkinson's
disease, while deficits in the brain's
motor regions is associated with
dementia and involuntary jerking of
the arms and legs.
A

Gamma-Amino
Butyric Acid
(GABA)

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23
Q
Depleted levels of
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
at brain synapses are
associated with some
types of depression, while
excessive levels are
associated with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
A

Norepinephrine;
dopamine;
schizophrenia

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24
Q
What primary excitatory
neurotransmitter in the CNS
is associated with learning,
memory, and long-term
potentiation (transfer of
information from short-term to
long-term memory)?
A

Glutamate

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25
``` These neuromodulators bind to opiate receptor sites, reducing activity in the thalamus and cerebral cortex, thereby inhibiting feelings of pain and increasing feelings of pleasure. ```
Endorphins (endogenous morphine)
26
``` Lying directly above the medulla and connecting the 2 sides of the cerebellum, the ________ helps in the regulation of arousal states. ```
Pons
27
This area of the brain consists of the brain stem and the cerebellum.
Hindbrain
28
``` What brain structure, sitting on top of the medulla and pons, is responsible for maintaining balance, coordinating movements, and controlling posture? ```
Cerebellum
29
What 2 parts of the brain are contained in the brain stem?
Medulla Oblongota and Pons
30
``` This condition occurs with damage to the cerebellum and is characterized by slurred speech, severe tremors, and loss of balance. ```
Ataxia
31
``` The ________ contains vital centers that control digestion, blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing; damage to it often leads to death. ```
Medulla | Oblongota
32
``` This area of the brain contains the substantia nigra and reticular formation; all information passing between the brain and the spinal cord passes through it. ```
Midbrain (aka | mesencephalon)
33
``` Parkinson's disease results from degeneration of neurons in this brain structure. ```
Substantia | Nigra
34
``` The ________ is responsible for maintaining the body's homeostasis (temperature, fluid levels, metabolism, etc.) and also plays a role in intentional behaviors such as feeding, sex, aggression, and maternal behavior. ```
Hypothalamus (remember 4 F's: Fight, Flight, Feed, Fornicate)
35
``` What brain structure plays a role in respiration and reflex control, pain and touch sensations, and sleep and arousal? ```
Reticular | Formation
36
``` What brain structure relays incoming sensory information to the cortex for all senses but olfaction, is involved in language, memory, and motor activity, and regulates consciousness, sleep, and alertness? ```
Thalamus
37
``` The ________ is crucial for maintaining a waking state, arousal, and attention; neurons from it arouse the brain and facilitate information reception by appropriate neural structures. ```
Reticular Activating System
38
``` information related to control of voluntary movement, sensorimotor learning, and motoric expressions of emotion; abnormalities in it are linked with Tourette's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease, depression, mania, OCD, and psychosis. ```
Basal | Ganglia
39
``` This area of the brain contains the hypothalamus, thalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex. ```
Forebrain
40
``` This consists of a group of brain structures (amygdala, septum, hippocampus) that work together to mediate the emotional component of behavior. ```
Limbic | System
41
``` This limbic system structure plays a role in the processing and memory of emotional reactions and mediates defensive/aggressive behavior; lesions in it produce Kluver-Bucy Syndrome. ```
Amygdala
42
``` What term refers to the fact that the left hemisphere of the brain controls functions on the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere controls functions on the left side of the body? ```
Contralateral | representation
43
``` The ________ serves to inhibit emotionality; in rats, lesions produce hyper-emotionality and rage, while electrical stimulation is extremely pleasurable. ```
Septum
44
What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal; Parietal; Occipital; Temporal
45
``` This limbic system structure is involved in learning and memory, particularly transferring new information from short-term to long-term memory; damage to this area can cause anterograde amnesia. ```
Hippocampus
46
``` The ________ is involved in motor behavior, executive functions, expressive language, and orientation to person, place, and time; it consists of the primary motor, premotor, and prefrontal cortex. ```
The frontal | lobe
47
``` This is the last part of the brain to stop growing and undergoes more structural change following birth than any other part of the central nervous system. ```
Cerebral | cortex
48
``` Damage to a specific area of the premotor cortex of the frontal lobe can produce ________, which is characterized by a severe deficiency in expressive language (e.g., speech is slow and poorly articulated, very few words are used). ```
Broca's aphasia (aka expressive aphasia)
49
``` Damage to this area of the frontal lobe usually results in decreased motivation, difficulty making decisions, deficient self-awareness, poor social control, and perseveration. ```
Prefrontal | cortex
50
``` Parietal lobe damage can lead to ________, or the inability to identify objects by touch, _______, or the inability to make intentional movement despite normal motor function, and/or ________, or the inability to read/write. ```
Agnosia; apraxia; agraphia
51
``` What lobe of the brain contains the primary auditory cortex and is associated with memory, emotion, and receptive language? ```
The temporal lobe
52
``` This part of the brain contains the visual cortex; damage can lead to ________, or the inability to recognize familiar objects by sight. ```
The occipital lobe; visual agnosia
53
``` Caused by damage to particular area of the temporal lobe, ________ is characterized by severe deficits in language comprehension; speech is usually normal sounding but does not make sense and familiar objects are unable to be named (dysnomia). ```
Wernicke's aphasia (aka fluent or receptive aphasia)
54
``` What term is used to describe the fact that some higher level cortical functions are controlled more by either the left or right hemisphere of the brain? ```
Lateralization | of function
55
``` This lobe of the brain integrates sensory information from different modalities, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation. ```
The parietal lobe
56
``` The ________ is a bundle of fibers that enables communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. ```
Corpus | callosum
57
``` In general, the ________ hemisphere is associated with creativity, understanding spatial relations, emotional expression, and facial recognition while the ________ hemisphere is involved with analytical thinking, logic, and language (written and spoken). ```
Right; | left
58
``` What are the 6 "basic emotions" accepted as being universally experienced by all humans? ```
Fear, anger, joy, sadness, surprise, and disgust
59
``` What theory of emotion posits that emotions occur as the result of one's perception of physiological changes occurring in response to environmental stimuli (e.g., "I am trembling so I must be afraid," "I am crying so I must be sad")? ```
James-Lange | Theory
60
``` The ________, proposed by Schachter, Stunkard, and Rodin, suggests that obese people overeat because they are inherently more sensitive to certain external cues than internal cues (e.g., eat because food tastes good despite satiety). ```
Externality | hypothesis
61
``` The ________ theory of emotion suggests emotions and physiological changes (e.g., muscle tension, sweating) are experienced simultaneously; it is predicted that the thalamus and cortex are stimulated at the same time, producing simultaneous arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and emotional feeling. ```
Cannon-Bard
62
``` Regarding human sexual behavior, what are the 2 primary sources of sex hormone? ```
Pituitary gland and gonads (ovaries/testes)
63
``` This theory of emotion, based on research by Schachter and Singer, posits that most emotional states produce similar physical sensations, while the specific emotion experienced is a product of one's attribution for the cause of those sensations. ```
Cognitive-Arousal Theory (aka Two-Factor Theory)
64
``` Of the hormones produced by the gonads, ________, which include testosterone, are involved in sexual interest and cause the development of secondary sex characteristics in males; _______ and ________ are found primarily in women and are necessary for healthy reproductive function. ```
Androgens; estrogens; progesterone
65
``` What occurs in women as a result of a drop in estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone and is characterized by hot flashes, insomnia, mood swings, urinary incontinence, and vaginal changes? ```
Menopause
66
``` During this period of sleep, paradoxically, EEG activity is typical of an aroused nervous system, while the person's responsiveness to the environment is very low. ```
REM (rapid eye movement)
67
``` Research has shown that low desire for sex in women seems to be correlated more with a lack of ________ rather than ________. ```
Androgens; | estrogens
68
TRUE or FALSE: Dreaming only occurs during REM sleep.
``` FALSE: Research suggests that dreaming occurs in non-REM sleep, though REM dreams are more vivid, emotionally-laden, and more likely to be remembered ```
69
``` In terms of sexual function, a man who is paralyzed from the waist down would most likely be able to what? ```
Attain an erection but not ejaculate
70
``` As people age, the total amount of sleep time ________ and the proportion of non-REM to REM sleep ________. Attain an erection but not ejaculate This ```
Decreases; | increases
71
``` During periods of relaxed wakefulness, ________ waves are typically found on an EEG, while ________ waves are more predominant during active, alert states. ```
Alpha; | beta
72
``` This term refers to the strengthening of the connection between 2 neurons in the hippocampus that lasts for an extended period of time; it is commonly regarded as the cellular basis of memory. ```
Long-term potentiation
73
``` TRUE or FALSE: Research has suggested that RNA may play a role in memory. ```
``` TRUE: Untrained organisms injected with RNA from trained organisms learned conditioned responses more quickly than control organisms (*controversial issue) ```
74
``` When necessary body fluids are low, this hormone inhibits urination; diabetes insipidus (excessive water loss) is the result of under-secretion of this hormone. ```
Antidiuretic hormone (or Vasopressin)
75
``` What bodily system is made up of ductless, hormone secreting glands that travel through the blood to influence organ function? ```
The endocrine system
76
``` The pituitary gland releases ________ hormone, influencing the release of ________, which stimulates the liver to convert energy stores into glucose. ```
Adrenocorticotropic | (ACTH); cortisol
77
``` Referred to as the "master gland," the ________ secretes hormones that act directly on organs (e.g., growth hormone, antidiuretic hormone) as well as hormones that influence the secretions of other glands. ```
Pituitary | gland
78
``` Under-secretion of ACTH causes ________, which is characterized by fatigue, appetite loss, depression, and fainting spells; over-secretion leads to ________, which is characterized by obesity, memory loss, depression, mood swings, and somatic delusions. ```
Addison's Disease; Cushing's Disease
79
``` What hormone stimulates growth by acting on the epiphyseal plates at the ends of bones and, when over-secreted or under-secreted, can lead to giantism or dwarfism, respectively? ```
Growth hormone (aka somatotropic hormone)
80
What is true about a person's cortisol levels throughout a single day?
They typically peak early in the day and fall in the evening
81
What gland controls metabolism through its release of the hormone thyroxin?
Thyroid | gland
82
``` TRUE or FALSE: Information seen with the right eye travels only to the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa. ```
``` FALSE: It travels to both hemispheres, as both eyes receive info from the left and right visual field; however, information from one visual field is transmitted only to the opposite hemisphere ```
83
``` ________ involves slowed metabolism, reduced appetite, weight gain, decreased heart rate and body temp, low libido, depression, and impaired cognitive processes (e.g., concentration, memory); symptoms of ________ include high body temp, increased metabolism, increased appetite, weight loss, nervousness, agitation, fatigue, insomnia, mania, and decreased capacity for attention. ```
Hypothyroidism; Hyperthyroidism (Grave's Disease)
84
``` The ability to orient oneself toward the direction of a sound, indicated by the turning of one's head toward the sound, is referred to as what? ```
Auditory | localization
85
``` The pancreas releases ________, which functions to help the body absorb and make use of glucose and amino acids; the body's inability to produce it causes ________, while over-production leads to ________. ```
Insulin; diabetes mellitus; hypoglycemia
86
``` TRUE or FALSE: Depressive disorders and alcohol dependence are more common in the first-degree relatives of people with chronic pain. ```
TRUE: This suggests an environmental or genetic predisposition for developing pain
87
``` Of the 2 kinds of receptors in the eye, ________ are sensitive only to brightness levels and are specifically adapted to sense stimuli in low levels of light, while ________ are responsible for seeing color and function only in brighter environments. ```
Rods; | cones
88
``` According to this theory of pain, activation of nerves that do not transmit pain signals can interfere with signals from pain fibers and inhibit one's perception of pain (e.g., massaging sore muscles = afferent, engaging in distracting mental activities = efferent). ```
Gate-Control | Theory
89
``` What sense is considered the most primitive (phylogenetically lowest) due to the fact that information received by it is not relayed from the thalamus to the cortex, but runs directly to the limbic system? ```
Smell | olfaction
90
``` While Fechner's law of psychophysics states that changes in the magnitude of a physical stimulus are logarithmically related to changes in physical sensations, Stevens' ________ proposes there is an exponential relationship between the magnitude of physical stimuli and internal sensations, with the exponent varying for different types of stimuli. ```
Power | law
91
``` This term refers to the study of the relationship between the magnitude of physical stimuli and psychological sensations (subjective correlates; percepts). ```
Psychophysics
92
``` ________ brain imaging techniques include Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT scan) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), which take a series of images at different levels of the brain providing direct visualization of structures and features. ```
Structural
93
``` According to psychophysics, the level of intensity of a stimulus at which a subject is able to detect the presence of the stimulus some proportion (usually 50%) of the time (e.g., the softest a sound can be and still be heard) is referred to as what? ```
Absolute threshold (aka detection threshold)
94
``` Regarding structural brain imaging techniques, ________ measures density of brain tissue and is helpful in identifying tumors, blood clots, tissue damage, and multiple sclerosis, while ________ provides 3D images with more precise detail, does not require the use of x-rays, and is useful in examining the central nervous system. ```
CT scan; | MRI
95
``` What psychophysics term refers to the magnitude of the difference between 2 stimuli of differing intensities that a subject is able to detect some proportion (usually 50%) of the time (e.g., differences in small changes in weight of an item)? ```
Difference threshold (aka just noticeable difference)
96
``` What types of brain imaging techniques include Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). ```
Functional | techniques
97
``` This functional brain imaging technique uses small amounts of injected radioactive material to measure regional cerebral blood flow, glucose metabolism, or oxygen consumption; it is useful for identifying brain dysfunction due to stroke, epilepsy, tumor, and other conditions. ```
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
98
``` A person with this type of visual agnosia is unable to recognize objects by sight but can identify them by touch. ```
Aperceptive | agnosia
99
Regarding focal brain syndromes, ________ refers to impaired ability to produce or comprehend written or spoken language, ________ refers to impaired reading abilities, ________ involves impaired ability to execute learned purposeful movements, ________ is the inability to recognize familiar objects in the absence of a primary sensory system disturbance, and ________ is the inability (or unwillingness) to acknowledge one's own functional impairment.
Aphasia; alexia; apraxia; agnosia; anosognosia
100
``` A person who is unable to recognize familiar faces, though maintains the capacity to recognize other objects, and can identify others by the sound of their voice, style of dress, or other characteristics likely has this type of agnosia. ```
Prosopagnosia
101
``` Often mistaken for aphasia, what condition involves problems in articulation due to lesions or disease that disrupt the control of speech (e.g., Parkinson's disease, Huntington's chorea, and multiple sclerosis)? ```
Dysarthria
102
``` A person who begins experiencing dull headaches, seizures, nausea and projectile vomiting, changes in vision and hearing, and/or other focal neurological signs (e.g., localized sensory loss, paresthesias, ataxia) is exhibiting symptoms of what? ```
Brain | tumor
103
``` A person with ________ apraxia cannot respond to commands requiring particular movement (e.g., pick up a fork) but may be able to do so spontaneously, while those with ________ apraxia cannot draw or copy simple figures or arrange blocks in a pattern. ```
Ideomotor; | constructional
104
``` What occurs when blood flow to the brain experiences a severe, sudden interference, such as by a blood clot (embolism) or hemorrhage, which leads to the onset of neurological symptoms? ```
Stroke (aka cerebrovascular accident, or CVA)
105
``` TRUE or FALSE: Symptoms caused by an open head injury (e.g., gun shot wound) tend to resolve more rapidly than problems caused by a closed head injury (e.g., severe car accident). ```
``` TRUE: Open head injuries are usually focal, affecting a specific part of the brain, while closed head injuries are more diffuse and lead to widespread damage ```
106
``` What type of antidepressants work by blocking norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake at the synapse, and are used not only to treat depression, but panic attacks, OCD, bulimia, chronic pain, and agoraphobia? ```
``` Tricyclics (e.g., imipramine [Tofranil], clomipramine [Anafranil], amitriptyline [Elavil]) ```
107
``` What is the best overall predictor of prognosis following a closed head injury? ```
Duration of anterograde (posttraumatic) amnesia
108
``` Commonly used to treat depression, OCD, panic disorder, binge eating, and other anxiety disorders, ________ work by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, thereby increasing the availability at the synapse. ```
``` Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine [Prozac], sertraline [Zoloft], paroxetine [Paxil]) ```
109
``` This neurodegenerative genetic disorder is characterized by affective and personality changes, forgetfulness, and most prominently, motor symptoms such as incoordination, clumsiness, and eventually involuntary jerky movements. ```
Huntington's Chorea (chorea = involuntary writhing movements)
110
``` Use of an SSRI causes some people to experience unpleasant sensations of inner restlessness that manifests itself as an inability to remain still. This is referred to as what? ```
Akathesia
111
``` What motor disorder is characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, involuntary movements, akinesia (slowed movement, emotionless speech, blank facial expression), posture and equilibrium disturbances, and often depression? ```
Parkinson's | Disease
112
``` Usually used to treat atypical symptoms of depression, ________ block the action of enzymes that break down norepinephrine and serotonin, thereby making them more available at synapses. ```
``` Monamine Oxidase Inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine [Nardil], tranylcypromine [Parnate]) ```
113
``` The most popular medication used to treat Bipolar Disorder, ________ is believed to work by reducing postsynaptic responsivity to dopamine and norepinephrine. ```
Lithium
114
``` One of the most serious side effects of traditional antipsychotics, this condition is characterized by repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements, including lip smacking, grimacing, puckering lips, and rapid eye blinking. ```
Tardive | dyskinesia
115
What is one of the most common side effects of lithium?
Fine hand | tremor
116
True of False: Symptoms of tardive dyskinesia can be expected to immediately diminish as a person is gradually withdrawn from taking the drug.
``` False- usually symptoms temporarily increase before decreasing ```
117
``` The notion that schizophrenia is the result of overactivity of dopamine is referred to as what? ```
The dopamine hypothesis
118
``` What class of drugs are the most commonly prescribed to treat anxiety and panic disorders, are addictive when improperly used, and work by enhancing the activity of GABA, a neurotransmitter that has an inhibitory effect on the central nervous system? ```
``` Benzodiazepines (e.g., diazepam [Valium], alprazolam [Xanax], clonazepam [Klonopin]) ```
119
``` ________ antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol) are most useful at alleviating positive symptoms of psychosis, whereas ________ antipsychotics (e.g., clozapine, risperidone) effectively alleviate both positive and negative symptoms. ```
Traditional (typical); atypical
120
This drug is commonly used to treat anxiety and works by interrupting impulses to the reticular activating system; it is rarely prescribed anymore due to its addictiveness and the effectiveness of safer benzodiazepines.
``` Barbiturates (e.g., thiopental [Pentothal], amobarbital [Amytal]) ```
121
Typically used to treat anxiety disorders, ________ differs from benzodiazepines and other anxiolytics in that it does not produce sedative, anticonvulsant, or muscle relaxant side effects, nor does it appear to be addictive.
Buspirone | BuSpar
122
A person presenting with symptoms of severe anxiety about public speaking might be prescribed what type of drug, which is good at treating the physical symptoms of anxiety and traditionally used to treat hypertension, migraine, essential tremor, and cardiac arrhythmias?
Beta-Blocker | e.g., propranolol [Inderal]
123
``` Often used to treat ADHD, ________ is a psychostimulant that decreases motor activity, diminishes impulsivity, and increases concentration and attention. ```
Methylphenidate | Ritalin
124
``` TRUE or FALSE: A person prescribed Ritalin to treat ADHD is encouraged to take the drug continuously for the best effects. ```
``` FALSE: Psychostimulants can lead to growth suppression in youngsters, thus many doctors recommend "drug holidays" ```