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BIO108 - General Physiology > Nervous System > Flashcards

Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

complex network of neurons and supporting structures that regulates and coordinates body activities

A

nervous system

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2
Q

three main parts of the nervous system

A
  1. brain
  2. spinal cord
  3. nerves
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3
Q

functions of the nervous system

A
  1. communication and coordination
  2. control muscles and movement
  3. sensory perception
  4. regulation of internal organs
  5. learning, memory, and thought
  6. response to stimuli
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4
Q

two parts of the nervous system

A
  1. central nervous system
  2. peripheral nervous system
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5
Q

composed of the brain and spinal cord

A

central nervous system

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6
Q

composed of all the nerves outside the CNS, including cranial and spinal nerves

A

peripheral nervous system

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7
Q

two types of cells in the nervous system

A
  1. neurons
  2. glial cells
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8
Q

transmit electrical signals

A

neurons

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9
Q

three overlapping functions of the nervous system that work together to enable skilled movement

A
  1. sensory output (sensory)
  2. integration output
  3. response (motor output)
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10
Q

Three parts of the neuron

A
  1. cell body
  2. dendrites
  3. axon
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11
Q

central part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and controls the cell’s functions

A

cell body

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12
Q

afferent component of a neuron

A

dendrites

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13
Q

sends signals away

A

axon

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14
Q

parts of the axon

A
  1. axon hillock
  2. myelin sheaths
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15
Q

area where axon leaves the neuron cell body

A

axon hillock

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16
Q

highly specialized insulating layer of cells

A

myelin sheaths

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17
Q

Different kinds of neurons

A
  1. unipolar neurons
  2. bipolar neurons
  3. pseudounipolar neurons
  4. multipolar neurons
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18
Q
  • have only one structure extending from the soma
  • only occur in invertebrates
A

unipolar neurons

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19
Q
  • have one axon and one dendrite extending from the soma
A

bipolar neurons

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20
Q

contain one axon and many dendrites

A

multipolar neurons

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21
Q

have a single structure that extends from the soma, which later branches into two distinct structures.

A

pseudounipolar neurons

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22
Q

Types of neurons

A
  1. sensory neurons
  2. motor neurons
  3. interneurons
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23
Q
  • aka afferent neuron
  • carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors in tissues and organs to the CNS
A

sensory neurons

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24
Q
  • aka efferent neurons
  • carry nerve impulses from the CNS to the muscles and glands
A

motor neurons

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25
Q

carry nerve impulses back and forth often between sensory and motor neurons within the spinal cord or brain

A

interneurons

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26
Q

where are interneurons found

A

exclusively in the CNS (brain and spinal cord)

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27
Q

are the supportive cells of CNS and PNS both physically and metabolically

A

glial cells

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28
Q

Different types of glial cells

A
  1. Schwann cells
  2. oligodendrocytes
  3. microglial cells
  4. ependymal cells
  5. astrocyte
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29
Q
  • type of glial cell that surrounds neurons, keeping them alive and sometimes covering them with a myelin sheath
  • major glial cell type in the peripheral nervous system
A

Schwann cells (SCs)

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30
Q

responsible for producing and maintaining the myelin sheath of the central nervous system

A

Oligodendrocytes

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31
Q
  • acts as immunce cells of the CNS
  • help protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell debris
  • resident cells of the brain that regulate brain development, maintenance of neuronal networks, and injury repair
A

microglia

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32
Q

what does the microglia regulate

A
  • brain development
  • maintenance of neuronal networks
  • injury repair
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33
Q

form an epithelial layer that lines the ventricles and central canal of the brain and spinal cord, respectively

A

ependymal cells

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34
Q
  • help form the blood-brain barrier
  • also involved in material exchange
  • make up the majority of cells in the human central nervous system (CNS)
  • can inhibit and stimulate te signaling activity of nearby neurons
A

astrocytes

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35
Q

what is membrane potential

A

localized electrical gradient across membrane

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36
Q
  • non-excited state
  • usually -70mV
A

resting membrane potential

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37
Q

3 sodium ions out, 2 potassium ions in

A

sodium-potassium pump

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38
Q

sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating change of the resting membrane potential

A

action potential

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39
Q

different parts of the action potential

A
  1. hypopolarization
  2. depolarization
  3. overshoot
  4. repolarization
  5. hyperpolarization
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40
Q

initial increase of the membrane potential to the value of the threshold potential

A

hypopolarization

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41
Q

threshold potential opens voltage-gated sodium channels, causing large influx of sodium ions

A

depolarization

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42
Q

phase during an action potential when the inside of a neuron becomes positively charged relative to the outside

A

overshoot

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43
Q

restore the resting membrane potential

A

repolarization

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44
Q

membrane potential is more negative than the default membrane potential

A

hyperpolarization

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45
Q

two types of synaptic tranmission

A
  1. electrical synapse
  2. chemical synapse
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46
Q
  • less common but faster
  • allow direct electrical communication between neurons via gap junctions
A

electrical synapses

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47
Q
  • most common type
  • neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft
A

chemical synapses

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48
Q

Key features of electrical synapses

A
  1. gap junctions
  2. bidirectional signal transmission
  3. speed
  4. synchronization of neurons
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49
Q

electrical synapse occur at these structures

A

gap junctions

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50
Q

electrical signals can pass in both directions between the connected neurons

A

bidirectional signal transmission

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51
Q

because there is no need for neurotransmitter release and binding, communicated across electrical synapses is extremely fast almost instantaneous

A

speed

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52
Q

speed of electrical synapse

A

extremely fast

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53
Q

electrical synapses are important for synchronizing the activity of groups of neurons

A

synchronization of neurons

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54
Q

Key Steps in Chemical Synapses

A
  1. action potential reaches the presynpatic terminal
  2. calcium influx
  3. neurotransmitter release
  4. postsynaptic response
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55
Q

postsynaptic response can lead to what?

A
  1. depolarization
  2. hyperpolarization
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56
Q

if excitatory neurotransmitters are involved, the postsynaptic membrane becomes less negative, moving closer to the threshold for firing an action potential

A

depolarization

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57
Q

if inhibitory neurotransmitters are involved, the membrane becomes more negative, moving farther from the threshold, making it less likely to fire an action potential

A

hyperpolarization

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58
Q

two types of chemical synapses

A
  1. excitatory synapses
  2. inhibitory synapses
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59
Q

type of neurotransmitter that causes depolarization

A

excitatory neurotransmitters

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60
Q

type of neurotransmitter that causes hyperpolarization

A

inhibitory neurotransmitters

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61
Q

Example of neurotransmitters

A
  1. acetylcholine
  2. dopamine
  3. glutamate
  4. gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
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62
Q

role of acetylcholine

A

excitatory at neuromuscular junctions

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63
Q

role of dopamine

A

modulates reward, motor control

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64
Q

role of glutamate

A

main excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS

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65
Q

role of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS

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66
Q

Two primary processes of signal integration

A
  1. temporal summation
  2. spatial summation
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67
Q

occurs when multiple signals arrive at a single synapse in rapid succession

A

temporal summation

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68
Q
  • emerges from multiple presynaptic neurons
  • occurs when stimuli are applied at the same time, but in different areas, with a cumulative effect upon membrane potential
  • uses multiple synapses acting simultaneously
A

spatial summation

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69
Q

Main parts of the brain

A
  1. cerebrum
  2. cerebellum
  3. brainstem
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70
Q
  • outer layer of the brain
  • associated with higher brain functions like cognition, sensory perception, voluntary movement, and language
A

cerebral cortex

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71
Q

brain functions of the cerebral cortex

A
  1. cognition
  2. sensory perception
  3. voluntary movement
  4. language
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72
Q

Four lobes of the cerebral cortex

A
  1. frontal lobe
  2. parietal lobe
  3. temporal lobe
  4. occipital lobe
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73
Q

responsible for reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and voluntary movements

A

frontal lobe

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74
Q

processes sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain

A

parietal lobe

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75
Q

involved in processing auditory information and memory

A

temporal lobe

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76
Q

responsible for visual processing

A

occipital lobe

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77
Q
  • located at the base of the brain and connects to the spinal cord
  • responsible for essential life-sustaining functions
  • serves as a relay center for transmitting information between the brain and the rest of the body
A

brainstem

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78
Q

functions of the brainstem

A
  1. breathing
  2. heart rate
  3. sleep cycles
  4. coordination of reflexes
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79
Q
  • located at the back of the brain under the cerebral cortex
  • plays a critical role in motor control
  • helps coordinate voluntary movements such as posture, balance, and coordination
  • ensures that movements are smooth and precise
A

cerebellum

80
Q

functions of the cerebellum

A

voluntary movements:
1. posture
2. balance
3. coordination

81
Q
  • major pathway for transmitting information between the brain and the body
  • extends from the brainstem down the length of the spine and is protected by the vertebral column
A

spinal cord

82
Q

Two primary functions of the spinal cord

A
  1. reflex actions
  2. transmission of sensory and motor information
83
Q

automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli

A

reflex actions

84
Q

pathway for reflex actions

A

reflex arc

85
Q

parts of the reflex arc

A
  1. sensory neurons - detect stimulus
  2. interneurons - process information
  3. motor neurons - activate muscle response
86
Q
  • sensory information from the body travels up the spinal cord to the brain
  • includes signals about touch, pain, temperature, and body position
A

sensory pathway

87
Q
  • motor commands from the brain travel down the spinal cord to the muscles
  • these pathways control voluntary movments like walking, lifting, and speaking
A

motor pathways

88
Q
  • parts of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord
  • plays a key role in both sensory (afferent) input and motor (efferent) output pathways
  • has 43 different segments of nerves
  • subdivided to somatic NS and autonomic NS
  • responsible for reflex arc
A

peripheral nervous system

89
Q

peripheral nervous system plays a key role in both what?

A
  • sensory (afferent) input
  • motor (efferent) output
    pathways
90
Q

how many segments does the peripheral nervous system have

A

43 diferent segments

91
Q

division of the 43 different segments of the PNS

A
  1. 12 pairs of cranial nerves
  2. 31 pairs of spinal nerves
92
Q

Subdivision of the PNS

A
  1. somatic NS
  2. autonomic NS
93
Q
  • carry information in and out of the brain
  • each has different function for sense or movement
  • 10 originated from brainstem and mainly control voluntary movement and structures of the head
  • 2 of them, olfactory and optic nerve nuclei, are not considered true because they are located in the forebrain and thalamus
A

cranial nerves

94
Q

how many cranial nerves originated from brainstem

A

10

95
Q

not considered as true cranial nerves

A
  1. olfactory nerve nuclei
  2. optic nerve nuclei
96
Q

why are the olfactory and optic nerve nuclei not considered as true cranial nerves

A

because they are located in the forebrain and thalamus

97
Q

mnemonics for cranial nerves

A
  1. oh
  2. oh
  3. oh
  4. to
  5. touch
  6. and
  7. feel
  8. very
  9. giant
  10. volcano
  11. ahh
  12. hot
98
Q

what are the cranial nerves

A
  1. olfactory
  2. optic
  3. oculomotor
  4. trochlear
  5. trigeminal
  6. abducens
  7. facial
  8. vestibulocochlear
  9. glossopharyngeal
  10. vagus
  11. accessory
  12. hypoglossal
99
Q

sensory only cranial nerves

A
  1. olfactory
  2. optic
  3. vestibulocochlear
100
Q

motor cranial nerves

A
  1. oculomotor
  2. trochlear
  3. abducens
  4. accessory
  5. hypoglossal
101
Q

both sensory and motor nerves

A
  1. trigeminal
  2. facial
  3. glossopharyngeal
  4. vagus
102
Q

smell

A
  1. olfactory
103
Q

vision

A
  1. optic
104
Q

serves muscles of the eye

A
  1. oculomotor
105
Q

serves the superior oblique eye muscles

A
  1. trochlear
106
Q
  • sensory from face and mouth
  • motor to muscles of mastication
A
  1. trigeminal
107
Q

serves the lateral rectus eye muscle

A
  1. abducens
108
Q

serves the muscles of facial expression, lacrimal glands, and salivary glands

A
  1. facial
109
Q

equilibrium and hearing

A
  1. vestibulocochlear
110
Q

serves the pharynx (throat) for swallowing, posterior 3rd of tongue, parotid salivary gland

A
  1. glossopharyngeal
111
Q

sensation from visceral (internal) organs, and parasympathetic motor regulation of visceral organs

A
  1. vagus
112
Q

serves muscles that move head, neck, and shoulders

A
  1. accessory
113
Q

serves muscles of the tongue

A
  1. hypoglossal
114
Q
  • carry somatosensory information and motor instructions from the spinal cord
  • help control the function and movement of the rest of the body
  • 31 pairs
A

spinal nerves

115
Q

what do spinal nerves carry

A

somatosensory information

116
Q

how many pairs are there in spinal nerves

A

31 pairs

117
Q

what are the 31 pairs of spinal nerves

A
  1. 8 cervical
  2. 12 thoracic
  3. 5 lumbar
  4. 5 sacral
  5. 1 coccygeal
118
Q
  • carry information from sensory receptors of the skin and other organs to the central nervous system
  • involves the special senses of vision, hearing, smell, and taste, as well as the sense of touch, pain, and temperature
  • associated with specialized sensory receptors according to the stimuli they respond to
A

afferent (sensory) neurons

119
Q

Different kinds of receptors

A
  1. exteroceptors
  2. interceptors
  3. proprioceptors
120
Q

near the external surface, keep an animal informed about its external environment

A

exteroceptors

121
Q

internal parts of the body, receive stimuli from internal organs

A

interceptors

122
Q

in muscles, tendons, joints, sensitive to changes in tension of muscles and provide an organism with a sense of body position

A

proprioceptors

123
Q

form of energy to which the receptors respond

A
  1. chemical
  2. mechanical
  3. light
  4. thermal
124
Q
  • specialized sensory receptors designed for detecting environmental status and change
  • first level of environmental perception; they are channels for bringing information to the central nervous system
A

sense organs

125
Q

what do sensory receptors with a sense organ do

A

transform energy from stimulus into nerve action potentials

126
Q
  • carry motor information away from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands of the body
  • specifically, they carry signals from the brain to the PNS in order to initiate action
A

efferent neurons

127
Q
  • associated with voluntary control of muscles via skeletal muscles
  • responsible for all the functions we can consciously influence such as moving our legs, arms, and other body parts
  • main function: connect the CNS with organs and striated muscles to perform daily functions
A

somatic nervous system

128
Q

regulates involuntary body responses

A

autonomic division

129
Q

voluntary movement by skeletal muscles

A

somatic division

130
Q
  • regulates involuntary physiological processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion and sexual arousal
  • sympathetic vs. parasympathetic divisions
  • physiological responses to stress and relaxation
A

autonomic nervous system

131
Q

two divisions of the autonomic nervous system

A
  1. sympathetic
  2. parasympathetic
132
Q
  • network of nerves that helps your body activate its “fight-or-flight” response
  • system’s activity increases when you’re stressed, in danger or physically active
A

sympathetic nervous system

133
Q
  • network of nerves that relaxes your body after periods of stress or danger
  • also helps run life-sustaining processes, like digestion, during times when you feel safe and relaxed.
A

parasympathetic nervous system

134
Q
  • largest and most complex unit of the PNS
  • sometimes called a second brain because it can independently control digestive activities
A

enteric nervous system

135
Q

interneuron connects motor neurons on both sides of the spinal cord, such that stimulation of muscle fibers in more than one part of the body allows coordination of muscle responses to stimuli

A

multisynaptic reflex arc

136
Q
  • process that involves adaptive structural and functional changes to the brain
  • the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to instrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections
  • this process of brain changes occur after injury which can be beneficial, neutral, or negative
A

neuroplasticity

137
Q

what is neuroplasticity

A

ability of the brain to form and reorganize synaptic connections, especially in response to learning or experience or following injury.

138
Q

how can neuroplasticity be beneficial

A

restoration of function after injury

139
Q

how can neuroplasticity be negative

A

can have pathological consequences

140
Q

Three phases of neuroplasticity

A
  1. first 48 hours
  2. following weeks
  3. weeks to months afterward
141
Q

first 48 hours of neuroplasticity

A

cell death, brain attempts to use secondary neuronal networks

142
Q

following weeks of neuroplasticity

A
  • recruitment of support cells as cortical pathways shift from inhibitory to excitatory
  • synaptic plasticity and new connections are made
143
Q

week to months afterward of neuroplasticity

A

brain continues to remodel itself via axonal sprouting and further reorganization around damage

144
Q
  • network of vessels that clear waste from the CNS, mostly during sleep
  • promote efficient elimination of soluble proteins and metabolites from the CNS
A

glympathic nervous system

145
Q

Common Disorders of the Nervous System

A
  1. epilepsy
  2. Alzheimer’s disease
  3. anosmia
  4. CIPA (congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis)
  5. colorblindness
  6. spinal cord injury
146
Q
  • long-term chronic disease that causes repeated seizures due to abnormal electrical signals produced by damaged brain cells
  • recurrent seizures
A

epilepsy

147
Q

changes in awareness, muscle contrl, sensations, emotions, and behavior

A

seizures

148
Q

what does epilepsy disrupt

A

rhythmic electrical impulses, causing bursts of uncontrolled electrical energy

149
Q
  • progressive decline in memory, thinking, learning, and organizing skills
  • most common in people over 65
A

Alzheimer’s Disease

150
Q

general term for symptoms like memory loss and difficulty thinking

A

dementia

151
Q

misprocessed beta-amyloid proteins clump together, disrupting communication between brain cells

A

amyloid plaques

152
Q

twisted tau proteins collpase cellular transport tracks, leading to cell dysfunction and death

A

tau tangles

153
Q
  • inability to detect odors
  • often leads to diminishes taste
  • can still recognize basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami)
A

anosmia

154
Q
  • rare genetic disorder leading to inability to fell pain and reduced sweating
  • susceptible to serve injuries without awareness
A

CIPA (congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis)

155
Q

difficulty sweating, affecting body temperature regulation

A

anhidrosis

156
Q
  • cause malfunctioning TrkA protein, crucial for sensory neuron survival
  • leads to self-destruction of pain-sensing neurons
A

NTRK1 Gene mutations

157
Q

caused by the absence or malfunction of cones in the retina, which are responsible for color vision

A

colorblindness

158
Q

process light and images, sending signals to the brain for color perception

A

cones

159
Q

types of cones

A
  1. red-sensing cones (L cones)
  2. green-sensing cones (M cones)
  3. blue-sensing cones (S cones)
160
Q
  • L cones
  • sensitive to long wavelength
  • around 560 nm
A

red-sensing cones (L cones)

161
Q
  • M cones
  • sensitive to medium wavelengths
  • around 530 nm
A

green-sensing cones (M cones)

162
Q
  • S cones
  • sensitive to short wavelenghts
  • around 420 nm
A

blue-sensing cones (S cones)

163
Q

most common type of colorblindness

A

red-green color blindness

164
Q

different types of red-green color blindness

A
  1. protanopia
  2. deuteranopia
  3. protanomaly
  4. deuteranomaly
165
Q
  • L cones missing
  • colors appear as shades of blue/gold
  • unable to perceive red light
A

protanopia

166
Q
  • M cones missing
  • sees mainly blues and golds
  • unable to perceive green light
A

deuteranopia

167
Q
  • L cones less sensitive
  • red light appears darker
A

protanomaly

168
Q
  • M cones less sensitive
  • greens appear muted
A

deuteranomaly

169
Q

types of blue-yellow colorblindess

A
  1. tritanopia
  2. tritanomaly
170
Q
  • S cones missing
  • colors appear mainly red, light blue, pink, and lavender
A

tritanopia

171
Q
  • S cones are less sensitive
  • blues look green, and yellow perception is diminished
A

tritanomaly

172
Q

rarest form of colorblindness

A

monochromacy

173
Q

Types of monochromacy

A
  1. blue cone monochromacy
  2. rod monochromacy (achromatopsia)
174
Q
  • only S cones are functional
  • see mostly in shades of grey
A

blue cone monochromacy

175
Q
  • no functional cones
  • vision in shades of gray
A

rod monochromacy (achromatopsia)

176
Q
  • supports the skull or the weight of the head
  • protects upper portion of the spinal cord
A

cervical spine (C1-C7)

177
Q

specially designed for head rotation and support

A
  1. C1 (atlas)
  2. C2 (axis)
178
Q

potential effects of cervical spine injury

A
  1. quadriplegia
  2. breathing problems
179
Q

loss of function/sensation in all four limbs

A

quadriplegia

180
Q

higher cervical injuries can affect diaphragm function

A

breathing problems

181
Q
  • provides stability and support to the rib cage, which protects vital organs such as the heart and lungs
  • allows limited movement compared to cervical and lumbar due to connection to ribcage
A

thoracic spine (T1-T12)

182
Q

supports upper body weight, facilitates body movement, and controls leg functions

A

lumbar spine (L1-L5)

183
Q

provides sensation to the groin and genital aria, helps move hip musles

A

L1 spinal nerve

184
Q

provide sensation to the front of the thigh and inner lower leg, control hip and knee movements

A

L2 - L4 spinal nerves

185
Q

sensation to the outer lower leg and upper foot, contrls hip, knee, foot, and toe movements

A

L5 spinal nerve

186
Q

formed by L4, L5, and sacral nerves, runs from the pelvis down the back of the leg to the foot

A

sciatic nerve

187
Q
  • part of the peripheral nervous system
  • involved in sensory and motor control in the pelvic area, legs, bladder, and sexual functions
A

sacrum (S1-S5)

188
Q
  • controls plantar flexion (pointing toes) and knee/hip movements
  • provides sensation to the outer leg and foot
A

S1 nerve

189
Q
  • assists with hip and knee movemnts
  • controls pelvic floor muscles
  • provides sensation to the back of the thigh and knee
A

S2 nerve

190
Q
  • similar to S2 nerve
  • involved in thigh sensation and movement
A

S3 nerve

191
Q

controls pelvic floor muscles, especially bowel movement control

A

S4 nerve

192
Q

a network of nerves (S1-S4) controlling hip movements, leg sensation, and includes the sciatic nerve

A

sacral plexus

193
Q

effect of sacrum injury

A
  1. loss of bladder/bowel control
  2. sexual dysfunction
  3. leg weakness
194
Q
  • tailbone, 3-5 fused vertebrate
  • bottom of the spine, providing attachment to points for muscles, tendons, and ligaments related to sitting and pelvic floor support
  • supports body weight when seated and helps balance
A

coccyx

195
Q

how many fused vertebrate are there in the coccyx

A

3-5

BIO108 - General Physiology (14 decks)

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