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BIO108 - General Physiology > Circulatory System > Flashcards

Circulatory System Flashcards

1
Q
  • network of cylindrical vessels that emerge from a pump
  • moves nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and other gases to the body’s organs, muscles, and tissue for energy, growth, and repair
A

circulatory system

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2
Q

what is the circulatory system

A
  • network of cylindrical vessels that emerge from a pump
  • moves nutrients, hormones, oxygen, and other gases to the body’s organs, muscles, and tissue for energy, growth, and repair
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3
Q

what is the function of the circulatory system in humans

A
  1. transport blood, oxygen, and nutrients to the body
  2. guards against pathogen invasion
  3. regulates body temperature
  4. buffers body pH
  5. maintain osmotic pressure
  6. clots prevent blood or fluid loss
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4
Q

Main parts of the human circulatory system

A
  1. heart
  2. blood vessels
  3. blood
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5
Q
  • works as a pump to move the blood around the body
  • has four chambers - two atria and two ventricles
A

heart

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6
Q

four chambers of the heart

A

two atria
two ventricles

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7
Q

takes in blood carrying carbon dioxide

A

right atrium

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8
Q

where is deoxygenated blood squeezed down into

A

right ventricle and to the lungs

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9
Q

where oxygen replaces carbon dioxide

A

lungs

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10
Q

where oxygenated blood enters

A

left atrium

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11
Q

where does the blood go after the left venticle pumps it

A

throughout the body

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12
Q

tissue layers of the heart wall

A
  1. epicardium
  2. myocardium
  3. endocardium
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13
Q
  • outer layer of the wall of the heart
  • formed by visceral layer of the serous pericardium
A

epicardium

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14
Q

what is epicardium made out of

A

visceral layer of the serous pericardium

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15
Q
  • muscular middle layer of the wall of the heart
  • has excitable tissue and the conducting system
A

myocardium

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16
Q

what does the myocardium have

A
  • excitable tissue
  • conducting system
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17
Q
  • composed of simple squamous epithelial cells which form the inner lining of the heart chambers
  • connects to blood vessels that supply the heart muscle and contributes to the regulation of heart contraction
A

endocardium

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18
Q

between the endocardium and myocardium and contains the impulse-conducting system

A

subendocardium

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19
Q

Cell Composition of the Heart

A
  1. myocardial contractile cells
  2. myocardial conducting cells
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20
Q
  • constitute the bulk (99 percent) of the cells in the atria and ventricles
  • conduct impulses and are responsible for contractions that pump blood through the body
A

myocardial contractile cells / cardiomyocytes (CMs)

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21
Q
  • initiate and propagate the action potential (the electrical impulse) that travels throughout the heart
  • triggers the contractions that propel the blood
A

myocardial conducting cells

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22
Q

different myocardial conducting cells

A
  1. sinoatrial (SA) node cells
  2. atrioventricular (AV) node cells
  3. Purkinje fibers
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23
Q
  • located in the superior and posterior walls of the right atrium close to the opening of the superior vena cava
  • has the highest inherent rate of depolarization and therefore referred to as the pacemaker of the heart.
A

Sinoatrial (SA) node cells

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24
Q
  • responsible for transmitting impulses that originate in the sinoatrial (SA) node to the ventricles of the heart
  • has the ability to slightly delay electrical signals, thus coordinating the contraction firstly of the atria and secondly of the ventricles.
A

Atrioventricular (AV) node cells

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25
Q
  • branches of specialized nerve cells that send electrical signals very quickly to your right and left heart ventricles
  • are in the subendocardial surface of your ventricle walls
A

Purkinje fibers

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26
Q

tubes or channels that carry blood throughout our body

A

blood vessels

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27
Q

three types of blood vessels

A
  • veins
  • arteries
  • capillaries
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28
Q

has the thickest wall of the three, allowing it to withstand high pressure created by the heart

A

Arteries

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29
Q

has the thinnest wall to allow substances such as oxygen and sugar to pass through its wall - into or out of the blood

A

capillary

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30
Q
  • less muscular and stretchy so blood moves through it with low pressure
  • also has special valve that helps blood go only one way
A

vein

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31
Q

artery

A

carries blood away from the heart
(thickest)

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32
Q

capillary

A

assists in the exchange of substances between the blood and tissues
(thinnest)

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33
Q

vein

A

carries blood back towards the heart
(less muscular and stretchy)

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34
Q

special fluid primarily contained within the blood vessels

A

blood

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35
Q

four main components of the blood

A
  1. red blood cells
  2. white blood cells
  3. platelets
  4. plasma
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36
Q

types of circulatory system

A
  1. open
  2. closed
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37
Q

blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels but is pumped into a cavity called a hemocoel

A

open circulatory system

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38
Q

blood is contained inside blood vessels, circulating in one direction

A

closed circulatory system

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39
Q

Circuits of the circulatory system

A
  1. pulmonary circuit
  2. systemic circuit
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40
Q
  • moves blood betwen the heart and the lungs
  • transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide
  • oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart
A

pulmonary circuit

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41
Q
  • moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body
  • sends oxygenated blood out to cells and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart
A

systemic circuit

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42
Q

Conduction System of the Heart

A
  1. sinoatrial (SA) node
  2. atrioventricular (AV) node
  3. bundle of HIS
  4. bundle branches
  5. Purkinje fibers
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43
Q

collection of specialized cells (pacemaker cells)

A

sinoatrial (SA) node

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44
Q
  • located within the atriventricular septum
  • delays the signal from the sinoatrial (SA) node to ensure that the atria have emptied the blood into the ventricles before pumping
A

atrioventricular (AV) node

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45
Q

continuation of the specialized tissue of the AV node

A

bundle of HIS

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46
Q

offshoots of the bundle of His that carry electrical impulses from the bundle of His to the Purkinje fibers, which causes the ventricles to contract.

A

bundle branches

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47
Q
  • sub-endocardial plexus of conduction cells
  • abundant with glycogen and have extensive gap junctions.
  • transmit signal to the ventricles causing them to contract
A

Purkinje fibres

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48
Q

Sequence of electrical events

A
  1. action potential generated at sinoatrial (SA) node
  2. excitation signal spreads and cause atria to contract
  3. excitation signal reaches atrioventricular (AV) node where it is delayed
  4. signal reaches bundle of His, bundle brances and down to the Purkinje fibers
  5. wave impulses are spread along the ventricles causing them to contract
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49
Q

two phases of the cardiac cycle

A
  1. systole (contraction phase)
  2. diastole (relaxtion phase)
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50
Q

occurs when the heart contracts to pump blood out

A

systole

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51
Q

occurs when the heart relaxes after contraction

A

diastole

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52
Q
  • atial depolarization/contraction
  • remaining blood is pushed into the ventricles
A

atrial systole

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53
Q

ejects blood into the outflow tract because there is sufficient blood pressure to open the outflow valve

A

ventricular systole

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54
Q

when does the cariac cycle end

A

when ventricles relax (ventricular diastole)

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55
Q

two main parts during ventricular systole

A
  1. isovolumetric contraction
  2. ejection
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56
Q
  • ventricles begin to contract and pressure inside the chambers increase
  • all valves are closed which makes the venticular volume of the blood to remain constant
A

isovolumetric contraction

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57
Q
  • ventricular pressure exceeds the aoritc and pulmonary artery pressures, opening the semilunar valves
  • there is forceful ejection of blood from the ventricles into the aorta and pulmonary artery
A

ejection

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58
Q
  • located at the connections between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle, and the aorta and the left ventricle
  • valves allow blood to be pumped forward into the arteries, but prevent backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles
A

semilunar valves

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59
Q
  • located on the left side of the heart, between the left atrium and the left ventricle
  • has two leaflets that allow blood to flow from the lungs to the heart
A

mitral valve

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60
Q

located on the right side of the heart, between the right atrium and the right ventricle

A

tricuspid valve

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61
Q

two parts of diastole

A
  1. isovolumetric relaxation
  2. passive filling
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62
Q
  • begins the ventricular relaxation where there is a decrese in pressure
  • ventricular volume of the blood remains constant because all the valves are closed again
A

isovolumetric relaxation

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63
Q
  • opening of the AV valves because of the decrease in ventricular pressure below atrial pressure
  • the blood flow passively from the atria into the ventricles
A

passive filling

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64
Q

all four valves are closed

A

isovolumetric contraction and relaxation

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65
Q

semilunar valves are open

A

ejection

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66
Q

atrioventricular valves are open

A

passive filling

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67
Q

cardiac muscle properties

A
  1. excitability
  2. conductivity
  3. contractility
  4. refractory period
  5. all or none law
  6. intercalated discs
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68
Q

cardiac muscles are able to generate electrical impulses spontaneously, allowing rhythmic contractions without external simulation

A

excitability

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69
Q

sinostrial node and Purkinje fibers are specialized cells within the heart that allows a rapid conduct of electrical impulses

A

conductivity

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70
Q

cardiac muscle cells can contract forcefully in order to pump blood throughout the body

A

contractility

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71
Q

ensures complete contraction and relaxation of the heart and can prevent tetanus that may interfere with the heart’s pumping action

A

refractory period

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72
Q

sustained muscle contraction that occurs when a muscle cell is repeatedly stimulated, causing the refractory period to shorten until the contraction is sustained without rest

A

Tetanus

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73
Q

the strength of a response of a nerve cell or muscle fiber is not dependent upon the strength of the stimulus

A

all or none law

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74
Q

there are specialized junctions between the cardiac muscle cells that allows rapid and efficient transmission of electrical impulses (e.g. gap junctions)

A

intercalated discs

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75
Q

chemical control

A
  1. inotropism
  2. chronotropism
  3. dromotropism
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76
Q
  • modification of muscular contractility
  • affects the force or strength of heart muscle contractions
A

inotropism

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77
Q

two types of inotropism

A
  1. positive inotropism
  2. negative inotropism
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78
Q

force of contraction is increased resulting to a more forceful pumping of the heart

A

positive inotropism

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79
Q

example of positive inotropism

A
  1. digoxin
  2. dobutamine
  3. milrinone
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80
Q

force of contraction is decreased, resulting to a less forceful pumping of the heart

A

negative inotropism

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81
Q

example of negative inotropism

A
  1. flecainide
  2. disopyramide
  3. atenolol
82
Q
  • interference with the rate of the heartbeat
  • affect the heart rate or the speed at which the heart beats
A

chronotropism

83
Q

two types of chronotropism

A
  1. positive chronotropism
  2. negative chronotropism
84
Q

increase heart rate

A

positive chronotropism

85
Q

example of positive chronotropism

A
  1. epinephrine
  2. isoproterenol
86
Q

decrease heart rate

A

negative chronotropism

87
Q

example of negative chronotropism

A
  1. digoxin
  2. metoprolol
  3. atenolol
88
Q

affects the conduction velocity of electrical umpulses through the heart’s conduction system

A

dromotropism

89
Q

two types of dromotropism

A
  1. positive dromotropism
  2. negative dromotropism
90
Q

the speed of conduction increases, which allows electrical signals to travel faster through the heart

A

positive dromotropism

91
Q

example of positive dromotropism

A

epinephrine

92
Q

speed of conduction decreases, which causes the decrease in the speed of electrical impulses in the heart

A

negative dromotropism

93
Q

example of negative dromotropism

A
  1. digoxin
  2. atenolol
94
Q

What is blood

A
  1. important for health maintenance and human body life
  2. delivers oxygen and nutrients
  3. composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, and platelets
95
Q

functions of the blood

A
  1. transportation
  2. regulation
  3. protection
96
Q
  • supplying oxygen to tissues and cells
  • oxygen from lungs to cells, carbon dioxide from cells to lungs
  • essential nutrients such as amino acids, fatty acids, and glucose are provided to the cells
  • endocrine hormones are delivered to specific cells
  • removal of waste materials such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid
A

transportation

97
Q

essential nutrients that are transported via blood

A
  • amino acids
  • fatty acids
  • glucose
98
Q

waste materials that are transported via blood

A
  • carbon dioxide
  • urea
  • lactic acid
99
Q

what does the blood help regulate

A
  1. body temperature
  2. pH through buffer
  3. water content of cells
100
Q

how does the blood protect

A
  1. action of white blood cells protects against diseases, infections, and foreign bodies
  2. clotting prevents blood loss
101
Q

blood composition

A
  1. plasma (46-63%)
  2. formed elements (37-54%)
102
Q

components of the plasma

A
  1. 92% water
  2. 7% proteins
  3. 1% other solutes
  4. <1% regulatory proteins
103
Q

different plasma proteins

A
  1. albumin (54-60%)
  2. globulins (35-38%)
  3. fibrinogen (4-7%)
104
Q

regulatory proteins

A
  1. hormones
  2. enzymes
105
Q

other solutes

A
  1. nutrients
  2. gases
  3. waste
106
Q

formed elements in the blood

A
  1. erythrocytes (99%)
  2. leukoytes (<1%)
  3. platelets (<1%)
107
Q
  • transport oxygen to and from the lungs
  • small and bioconcave
  • hemoglobin is a protein that contains iron and carries oxygen to its destiantion
  • production is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin
A

erythrocytes (red blood cells)

108
Q

hormone stimulates red blood cell production in response to low partial pressure of oxygen (pO2)

A

erythropoietin

109
Q

life span of erythrocytes

A

120 days

110
Q

how many erythrocytes are produced by the human body

A

~2 million every second

111
Q

have higher red blood cell numbers

A

males

112
Q

why do males have higher red blood cell numbers

A

testosterone is capable of stimulating erythropoiesis

113
Q

why do infants have higher red blood cell number compared to adults

A

adaptation to low oxygen conditions

114
Q
  • colorless
  • form vital defenses against infection and diseases
  • larger than erythrocytes
  • have a normal nucleus and mitochondria
A

leukocytes (white blood cells)

115
Q

how many leukocytes are there in a microliter of blood

A

~ 3,700-10,500

116
Q

what do leukocytes have

A

normal nucleus and mitochondria

117
Q

different types of leukocytes

A
  1. granular
  2. agranular
118
Q
  • Contain many visible granules in their cytoplasm
  • These granules store enzymes and other components that are released during infections, allergic reactions, and asthma
  • nonspecific immunity
A

granular

119
Q

types of granular leukocytes

A
  1. neutrophils
  2. eosinophils
  3. basophils
120
Q

Contain few or less visible granules in their cytoplasm

A

agranular leukocytes

121
Q

types of agranular leukocytes

A
  1. lymphocytes
  2. monocytes
122
Q
  • roughly disc-shaped and small
  • produced when large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes break into pieces
  • form platelet plug in homeostasis
  • fibrinogen converts fibrin to make a clot that prevents further loss of blood
A

thrombocytes (platelets)

123
Q

where are platelets produced from

A

megakaryocytes, large bone marrow cells, break into pieces

124
Q

what do thrombocytes form during homeostasis

A

platelet plug

125
Q

what is converted to make a clot that prevents further loss of blood

A

fibrinogen into fibrin

126
Q

amount of platelets per microliter of blood

A

150,000-400,000

127
Q

characterized by presence of antigens on the surface of erythrocytes

A

AB blood types

128
Q

are considred the most important and are followed routinely for clinical, diagnostic and forensic purposes

A
  • ABO system
  • Rh system
129
Q

what can blood type incompatibility lead to

A
  1. severe disseminated coagulation
  2. prolonged hypotension
  3. acute uraemia
  4. deat
130
Q

clumping of particles due to the interaction between antigens and antibodies

A

agglutination

131
Q

process of converting blood into a semisolid jelly-like substance.

A

coagulation

132
Q

where is Rh named after

A

Rhesus monkeys

133
Q

occurs when child is Rh positive and mother is Rh negative

A

mother-fetus incompatibility

134
Q

disease caused by mother-fetus incompatibility

A

erythroblastosis fetalis

135
Q

Involved in control of circulation

A
  1. precapillary sphincters
  2. vasomotion
  3. hormones
136
Q
  • tiny bands of smooth muscle located at the entrance to capillary beds
  • regulate blood flow into the capillaries
  • contract or relax in response to body’s needs, controlling the blood supply to tissues and organs
  • maintain blood pressure
A

precapillary sphincters

137
Q
  • rhythmic contraction and relaxation of small blood vessels, capillaried, and primary arterioles
  • independent of the heartbeat, respiratory cycles, or neve impulses
  • enhanced blood flow for increased delivery and nutrient exchange
  • support to metabolic processes by influencing the delivery of nutrients to tissues
A

vasomotion

138
Q

stimulation influences the regulation of blood circulation through two main types of control

A

hormones

139
Q

two main types of control

A
  1. neuronal control
  2. local control
140
Q
  • adjusts the blood flow
  • supplies the heart and the brain
  • maintains blood pressure
  • limits open capillaries
  • regulates capillary flow
  • priority system
A

neuronal control

141
Q
  • prevents large changes in resistance to flow
  • controlled by vasodilation or vasoconstriction
A

local control

142
Q

what happens to the blood vessels during vasoconstriction

A
  • narrows capillaries
  • dilate deeper blood vessels
143
Q

what happens to the blood vessels during vasodilation

A
  • widens capillaries
  • contrict deeper blood vessels
144
Q

Four types of blood pigments

A
  1. hemoglobin
  2. hemocyanin
  3. chlorocruorin
  4. hemerythrin
145
Q
  • iron-containing protein in red blood cells, giving blood its red color
  • most common respiratory pigment
  • structure allows simultaneous transport of multiple oxygen molcules for efficient delivery
A

hemoglobin

146
Q
  • circulates freely in the hemolymph rather than being confined to cells
  • contains copper atoms, fibing it a blue or green coloration
  • colorless when deoxygenated
  • oxygen binds directly to copper atoms, functioning well in low-oxygen conditions
A

hemocyanin

147
Q
  • contains iron atoms and is charcterized by a green-colored protein
  • found in annelids
  • exhibits high affinity for oxygen, benefician for low-oxygen environments
  • green when diluted, reddish when concentrated
A

chlorocruorin

148
Q
  • found in some marin inverts
  • does not contain heme
  • oxygen binds directly to its iron atoms
  • range from colorless to purplish in response to oxygenation
A

hemerythrin

149
Q

where the body relies to maintain pH balance efficiently

A

blood buffer systems

150
Q

blood pH range

A

7.35-7.45

151
Q

condition of having a lower pH than the normal pH of blood

A

acidosis

152
Q

vondition of having a higher pH than the normal pH of the blood

A

alkalosis

153
Q

different types of buffer system

A
  1. bicarbonate
  2. hemoglobin
  3. plasma protein
  4. phosphate
154
Q

operates similarly to phosphate buffers, with bicarbonate regulated by sodium in the blood

A

bicarbonate buffer system

155
Q

bicarbonate buffer system:
strong acid

A

bicarbonate produces carbonic acid and sodium chloride

NaHCO3 + HCl -> H2CO3 + NaCl

156
Q

bicarbonate buffer system:
strong base

A

carbonic acid produces bicarbonate and water

H2CO3 + NaOH -> HCO3- + H2O

157
Q

bicarbonate buffer system ratio

A

20:1 ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid

158
Q

regualted by CO2 expiration through the lung

A

carbonic acid levels

159
Q

help dissociate carbonic acid

A

carbonic anhydrase in red blood cells

160
Q

what manages bicarbonate levels

A

renal system which conserves bicarbonate ions

161
Q

where is the bicarbonate buffer system the primary buffering system of

A

intersitial fluid surrounding cells

162
Q
  • During the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonate, hydrogen ions liberated in the reaction are buffered by hemoglobin, which is reduced by the dissociation of oxygen
  • in pulmonary capillaries, process reverses to re-form CO2, allowing it to diffuse into air sacs for exhalation
A

hemoglobin buffer system

163
Q
  • amino acids contain positively charged amino groups and negatively charged carboxyl groups
  • charged regions of proteins can bind to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions
A

plasma protein buffer system

164
Q

protein buffer accounts for how much of the buffering system in blood

A

2/3

165
Q

use of phosphate to buffer

A

phosphate buffer system

166
Q

two forms of phosphates in the blood

A
  1. sodium dihydrogen phosphate (Na2H2PO4-), weak acid
  2. sodium monohydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4 2-), weak base
167
Q

phosphate buffer system:
strong acid

A
  • forms sodium dihydrogen phosphate, weak acid, and
  • sodium chloride

Na2HPO4 + HCl -> NaH2PO4 + NaCl

168
Q

phosphate buffer system:
strong base

A
  • reverts to Na2HPO4 2-, weak base, and
  • produces water

NaH2PO4 + NaOH -> Na2HPO4 + H2O

169
Q

mechanism that leads to cessation of bleeding from a blood vessel

A

hemostasis

170
Q

Steps in Hemostasis

A
  1. vascular spasm
  2. platelet plug formation
  3. coagulation of blood (clotting)
171
Q
  • initial response in primary hemostasis
  • occurs following damage to endothelial cells during vascular rupture
A

vascular spasm

172
Q

key mediator of vascular spasm

A

endothelin-1, vasoconstrictor

173
Q

freely floating platelets begin to clump together, forming sticky aggregates

A

initial clumping

174
Q

platelets attach to the exposed vascular lining and collagen due to spiked structure

A

attachment

175
Q
  • stabilizes plateleg plug and promotes further accumulation over the damaged endothelium
  • attached platelets release substances, mainly ADP, which attract more platelets to the site
A

role of von Willebrand factor

176
Q

temprary seal which are combined platelets bound to collagen and the endothelial lining

A

platelet plug

177
Q
  • process of blood solidification through fibrin fiber formation, marking the secondary hemostasis stage
  • results in a stable, solid blood clot
A

coagulation of blood (clotting)

178
Q

key step in the coagulation process

A

conversion of prothrombin to thrombin

179
Q

forms the mesh structure of the blood clot

A

conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin fiber

180
Q

Two different pathways in the coagulation process

A
  1. extrinsic pathway
  2. intrinsic pathway (contact activation pathway)
181
Q
  • Activated by internal damage to the vascular endothelium, such as by platelets, chemicals, or collagen
  • slower than the extrinsic pathway, but more important
  • measured clinically by the partial thromboplastin time (PTT).
A

intrinsic pathway

182
Q

how is the intrinsic pathway measured

A

partial thromboplastin time (PTT)

183
Q
  • Activated by external trauma, such as blood escaping from the vascular system.
  • quicker than the intrinsic pathway.
  • measured clinically by the prothrombin time (PT)
A

extrinsic pathway

184
Q

how is the extrinsic pathway measured

A

prothrombin time (PT)

185
Q
  • where both pathways eventually meet a
  • where factor X is activated and fibrinogen is converted into fibrin to form a blood clot.
A

the common pathway

186
Q

what happens in the common pathway

A
  • factor X is activated
  • fibrinogen is converted into fibrin to form blood clot
187
Q

degradation of fibrin fiber

A

fibrinolysis

188
Q

induced chemical or physical stress

A

thrombolysis

189
Q

aggregation of particles to form a single large solid mass

A

agglutination

190
Q

gelling or clumping of particles

A

coagulation

191
Q

what is formed during agglutination

A

large solid mass of small particles

192
Q

what is formed during coagulation

A

clump of small particles

193
Q

where does agglutination mainly occur

A

between antigens and antibodies

194
Q

where can coagulation be observed

A

blood

195
Q

Common Diseases of the circulatory system

A
  1. arteriosclerosis
  2. myocardial infarction (MI)
  3. hypertension
  4. abdominal aortic aneurysms
  5. heart arrhythmia
196
Q

thickening of the walls of arteries, reducing function

A

arteriosclerosis

197
Q

specific form of arteriosclerosis where plaque builds up on the endothelium of arteries, causing them to narrow and reduce oxygen delivery to the tissues

A

atherosclerosis

198
Q

artery that supplies blood and oxygen to the heart gets blocked

A

myocardial infarction (MI) or heart attack

199
Q

measures how hard your heart works to push blood through your arteries

A

blood pressure

200
Q
  • force of blood is too high
  • can harm your heart and lead to problems like heart disease, stroke, or kidney disease
A

hypertension

201
Q
  • bulge in a weak spot of the aorta in the abdomen
  • sometimes, it can stay small and not cause any issues
  • if it grows larger, pain might be felt in the abdomen or back
A

abdominal aortic aneurysms

202
Q
  • irregular heartbeat that happens when the electrical signals controlling the heart beats aren’t functioning correctly
  • can result in the heart beating too fast, too slow, or in irregular pattern
A

heart arrhythmia

BIO108 - General Physiology (14 decks)

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