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Question

drive to be equal with the est as polticial instability in china

Answer 1

Meji ambition to be a “first-class” nation encouraged it to gain territory on the mainland, to replicate the power of the other empires. Additionally, China proved to be a source of raw materials and a market. But with the Europeans feeding off this source, Japan was motivated to invade quicker. Also, by dominating these two areas, it would be a form of protection from the West/outside influence, given the border security and power Japan would get from controlling the two regions.

Answer 2

→ While Japanese expansionism was a crucial policy that was intentionally pursued, whether war was the primary method of conquering more land, or whether it was the last resort if negotiations failed, both consider Japan as the instigator of war. → Another perspective is that Japan only did a pre-emptive strike, as it felt threatened by US and British attempts of containment of the spread of Japanese influence.

Answer 3

Economy was hit hard, thus there was a salary cut for the civil and military sectors Essentially these decisions outraged the Military, and criticisms of the government grew from here on out. This dissatisfaction grew to the extent where the PM Hamaguchi was shot.

Answer 4

While these policies may have been a consequence of the Great Depression calling for desperate measures, Hamaguchi had a political agenda of suppressing the power of the military. Whether this was planned or the acts of a lonewolf, either way, it was a manifestation of the growth of the right’s militaristic view.

Answer 5

Koda-Ha: Military dictatorship * Saw the USSR as a threat and war inevitable * Wanted national support for the military government, instead of using martial law Tosei-Ha: Legal means to get military influence in the civilian government * Wants good ties with the USSR * Wants conquest of China, and see modernization of army and mobilization of the country as key.

Answer 6

The manifestation of the internal change towards militarism - either party’s opinions ends up with the military gaining power. In a sense, it is an indication of the inevitable rise of the military from civilian support.

Answer 7

PM Inukai shot, along with other political figures, banks and the police in an assassination plot by military figures. During the trial of the conspirators, the public displayed significant signs of support for their actions --------------------------------------- The assassinations accumulated its effect until the Kosei-ha was discredited, thereby allowing the Tosei-ha to become the overall ruling party. To avoid losing face from showing that they had no control over the army, they also had to go along with the popular choice and support the Kwantung Army

Answer 8

Not only did it signal the public’s disillusionment with the current civilian government, but public opinion has turned to militarism as the answer - in this sense, they had the public support to take over. Additionally, this is the turning point where the military took over the politics explicitly, and got the upperhand in politics [given that they were also aware of the public’s support for them] --------------------------------------- This period, also known as the “Dark Valley” shows the formative years were the unstable Japanaes politics reaches a balance with the success of the Tosei-ha, in terms of the direction into militarism that it was going to take. It should be important that this only directed the way into militaristic view, but the decision to become a militaristic society was already decided by the public, seen by the May 15th incident.

Answer 9

Many case scenarios have already shown how weak the civilian government was to the military's influence. However, Prime Minister Hirota was bullied into submitting to the military agenda, including * Ministers of Army and Navy must be serving officers [May 1936] * Signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Hitler Even with Prince Konoe entering as PM, there was little that could be done as the politicians were not only divided on how to control the military, but their own agenda was very militarist in nature, and therefore, to stop the actions of the military meant stopping the fulfillment of their own agenda.

Answer 10

This effectively made him a puppet figure for the military to control to gain concessions. It is from this point onwards, after gaining the concessions, that the military became too strong to be reigned down by the government, as seen by the continuation of the conquest of China despite governmental protest. The continuation of the invasion of Manchuria and the inability to control the Army heavily stem from the militarist civilian government themselves for being torn between fulfilling their agenda of establishing their empire and using diplomacy over physical invasion, especially considering the international condemnation for doing so. As the civilian government was also subjected to the public’s opinion, which was highly persuaded by the success rate of the military, this weakened any legitimate action that the government could have done against the military without backlash from the people.

Answer 11

The Imperial Rule Assistance Association, created to limit military power, was overtaken by the military in October 1941. It was then used to focus on European colonies and invade South East Asia for resources, market, and mainly as the “destined ruler of Asia” * Pressured France into being allowed to have troops and access to airspace in Indo-China

Answer 12

This was occurring simultaneously with the Sino-Japanese War. While it was a huge resource sink, it was also the perfect opportunity to invade the south in terms of the resources it could offer, as well as satisfying Japan’s expansionist agenda. While it could be considered a miscalculation on the Japanese part, as the army was overstretched, it did present itself as an appealing target [the way Manchuria was before]

Answer 13

Japan needs him as a stakeholder in China. Thus they come up with a plan to bring him back [by disarming his home base]. however... Kwantung leaders sought to assassinate him as an excuse to conquer Manchuria. Internal effort to retract the army was undermined by the willingness to protect the “prestige of the army” over the political decisions.

Answer 14

Because the army was able to get away by the biased system, where the Taisho Democracy did not have a strong control over its army [likely due to the military commanders in the parliament, and not politicians representing the army], it undermined the liberal democracy. It also increased the confidence of the army to continue their actions, as there was virtually no repercussions.

Answer 15

The GMD conceded territory- Manchuria, Mongolia, and Hebei province. There was a combination of non-resistance, no-compromise, and non-direct negotiation with the Kwantung Army. Essentially, his strategy was “selling space to buy time”. Jiang placed a gamble on the Japanese invasion by hoping it was self-destructive, as China was much bigger than Japan. There was a boycott of Japanese goods in China, but that had minimal-to-no effect.

Answer 16

Hsü: Their inaction towards the Japanses invasion [like of initiative for diplomatic actions or even resistance] allowed the Kwantung army to get away with more damage. By staying passive and expecting the LON to aid was what brought the severe impact upon China. Jiang’s prioritization of defeating the communist over the japanese on the basis of his belief that Japan would overstretch itself was not wrong, but without resistance, it would take longer to reach that point of overstretching. Additionally, the civilian boycott indicates the divide between the government and the people, as the government does not reflect the opinion of the people to fight the Japanese first. This instability in China was essentially a helping stand for Japan to reach its goal.

Answer 17

The 2nd United Front was formed to challenge the Japanese influence in Manchuria [after General Zhang had Jiang kidnapped and put under house arrest until he agreed to fight the Japanese first]. While the Government wanted to follow a peaceful position, the militants wanted to invade Manchuria. After PM Wakatsuki was informed, he attempted to stop the invasion, but the message did not get passed on in time [deliberately] [ended with a puppet government set up, and a japanese-chinese clash that created a huge refugee crisis for China]

Answer 18

Bix: Emperor Hirohito never imagined that the army would undermine the emperor’s authority through subtle tactics that did not show outright defiance to the system [given that they needed him as the icon to gather the support of the people]. Essentially, it showed how flawed the system of control over the army was, because it had the power to unilaterally act on its own, as well as disregard yet another diplomatic order [that too from the strongest position in the governance].

Answer 19

Any economic benefits were negated by the operation cost of the army in China * Taxation increased to support Manchurian invasion

Answer 20

Jiang’s belief was right. Additionally, it is ironic that the cost of invasion outdid its benefits, even though resources and market priority was few of the main aims - contradiction in foreign policy: may suggest either their intentions for invasion were different than what was put forward, or that they severely underestimated their ability.

Answer 21

When the Chinese appealed after the Mukden incident, the Japanese government co-operated. At this point, the civilian government were in power, but they had lost control of the army, and were willing to control and take back the military. The League acted cautiously, and it took around 18 months for an international committee to be sent out to examine the area and what had happened [called the Lytton committee]. Japan held accountable for losing control of its own army, and condemned the invasion. At this point, the army had taken over the government, and therefore, Japan saw this as unfair treatment given how the West all had colonies throughout Asia as well. Thus, left the LON and abandoned the international community all together Condemnation and foreign criticism led to the rise of nationalism

Answer 22

The time lost through the delay and long process not only undermine the ability of the League to quickly deal with the issue, because not only was the Kwantung army still actively invading Manchuria, but the military was also attempting to overrun the government with its own soldiers, but it lost the belief of its members in its capabilities to be an international peacemakers, especially considering that this is the first major power to challenge the international order. With the policy of isolation, the government had shifted away from international cooperation and towards fulfilling their own agenda of militarism and nationalism. This was especially effective in showing the Japanese that the nation was above the judgements of the West. Given the West’s hypocritical nature, it created a nationalist reaction against their unfair claim that if the leaders of the LON could have colonies, then so should the Japanese. Here, British politics can be blamed for being inadequate due to their appeasement politics and possession of colonies, while claiming to be the supporters of freedom and the leader of the LON. The people were influenced heavily by the culture of “reputation”, that any blow to their face would only drive them to prove themselves right.

Answer 23

* France perceived a weaker China beneficial for its Indo-China colonies * The Great Depression hindered the League’s ability to impose economic and military sanctions * Fear of communism overshadowed the need to control Japan’s expansionism [France and Britain even tried to make Japan their enemy] * American direct interest were not at risk, and due to internal priorities [economy], Congress refused to fund navy to engage with Japan. * Japan was an important trading partner with America, and therefore, less willingness to challenge their invasion [especially if it means more resources for trading] Essentially, prioritizing of other agendas, and not pursuing the League’s purpose led to the weak reaction that set off a chain reaction of the Axis powers individually leaving the League, and other such decisions [Mussolini to invade Albania]

Answer 24

The army entered China through Korea without Tokyo’s permission. Reinforcement was sent later, leading to a full-scale war. China never conceded, so a full eight years was fought. End of July - Japanese forces overran Beijing, and Shanghai was a war zone. Attempts at forming a diplomatic union with China, Japan and Manchuria failed, but the Chinese rejected this proposal. The Japanese were extremely brutal in their actions, through terrorizing Chinese refugees and through the Rape of Nanjing [Dec 1937]

Answer 25

Although there is little evidence to suggest that the Japanese actually instigated this war, Historian Boyle argues that Japan still created an atmosphere of fear and animosity, to the point where a small incident could progress into a 8-year war. As communism slowly took over China during the war, the Japanese ran out of options to fulfill their agenda of creating an empire when the next government would not be manipulated by a foreign party. This narrowed the range of paths the Japanese were willing to take to solely taking over and establishing influence through force. Through the course of the war, it became increasingly obvious that there was no end-goal for the war, no proper strategy, which not only supports the notion that this was a war the Japanese were not prepared for [at the time of it breaking out]. It later proved to not only force the Japanese south, which appeared to be convenient to their agenda while simultaneously destructive because the economic and resource condition was not adequate enough to sustain the war and expansion.

Answer 26

Total resistance was established. As the war escalated, the Japanes slowly faced a depleting supply of resources [therefore, couldn’t quickly win the war]. To deal with this issue, the Japanese invaded more land to plunder their resources [Received $25 million of oil loans from the US, due to the fear of Jiang siding with the Japanese down the road, China potentially becoming a Soviet sphere of influence, etc] ------------------------------------------ With the Second World War, the Sino-Japanese conflict turned into a sector of global war against aggression and totalitarianism.

Answer 27

The contradicting ‘solution’ to their problem of low supply of resources was a major miscalculation that led to more ineffective actions - to invade land it takes more resources, and therefore, it forced the Japanese to keep expanding in order to gain resources to maintain the land they had, which in turn gives them more land and a higher demand of resources to maintain the land they had conquered previously for resources and the original land they had controlled. Without any ability to consolidate their power in the regions taken over, it caused them to spread out too far without establishing much control, which would later bring their downfall. The US’ action at this point is still very subtle, and not direct enough to curb Japanese action. Furthermore, by supporting the corrupted government, it spurred a nationalist reaction against the GMD from the people, and therefore made their chances of success domestically much lower.

Answer 28

The League It was unable to become involved in a non-member’s politics, and within the nations that had international agreements with Japan, none could do anything except moral disapproval, either because there was no methods sanctioned through the treaty on how to deal with aggressive powers, or because they were preoccupied with the other aggressive nations [Germany / Italy] The US Stimson Doctrine [of non-recognition] - The US would not recognize any violation of Chinese territory or of the Kellogg-Briand Pact. * Done to publicly ‘uphold’ international law, but avoid the pressure to put economic sanction.

Answer 29

1. Admiration for Nazi Germany 2. USSR identified as key opponent 3. Join anti-comintern pact (1936) All the while, Japan never dissolved the cabinet government or had fascist parties. Rather, the militarist joined pre-existing parties and override them with time.

Answer 30

This signifies the strengthening of Japan’s confidence in its militaristic views, by joining Nazi Germany [who was also perceived to have the same goals], as well as released the legal bonds holding them back from their agenda.

Answer 31

Perfect alliance because Asia would be left alone to the Japanese, and aid from the colonizing countries would not be delivered because they would be engaged with the Italians and Germans. Settle northern border disputes with the USSR [beneficial to both parties] British and American response was to freeze all the assets [foreign trade stopped] and increased aid to Jiang [The oil loans] Embargo included: Plane/Aviation parts sales [Jan 1929], Credit to Japan ceased, and Trade Agreements suspended [increase economic pressure on Japan]

Answer 32

The freezing of assets was an ironic use of diplomatic action because it in fact pushed Japan to invade South East Asia at an accelerated rate because it was the only other source of resources and income that could make up by the stopping of foreign trade. A long-term embargo would be fatal, and hit the economy severely, and thus, forces Japan to continue on its foreign policy [without the ability to limit to a smaller degree in a less pressurized scenario]. This factor, while being in line with America’s isolationism and Britain’s engagement with Germany, was a rather pitiful action that did not appear thought through.

Answer 33

1) ‘Upset’ power balance in the Pacific 2) Penetration into North and Central China was more of a liability to the US’ idea of potential trade. ------------------------------------------ While financial aid was provided, there was no political intervention mostly due to the lack of willingness [1937 - Roosevelt made a speech, speaking about the ‘quarantine of aggressors’, but he was shut down by isolationists.

Answer 34

The US consistently prevents any interaction with Japan due to its neutrality policy. However, by allowing the army to continue escalating in their action [such as rearming their navy], essentially allowed Japan to do what Hitler did to the USSR: build-up enough strength until they were [or perceived themselves to be] ready for war against them. The lack of US intervention, as one of the only countries that could impact the Japanese enough to control them, allowed them to rampage with their own agenda freely [until 1941, when it became too late].

Answer 35

The US wanted Japan to respect territorial integrity of its neighbours, and maintain an ‘open door’ trade policy within territory. * Japan could not agree, leading to a deadlock From this, the Japanese were convinced that the West was attempting to destroy Japan’s “rightful place”. Thus, the Japanese Navy made ‘alternate’ plans - 10th October, if there was no deal, war would be waged on the US, Britain and the Netherlands * Backed by cabinet.

Answer 36

It appears that the US underestimated the Japanese willingness to fight, mainly because of their inability to be flexible with their demanda to the Japanese, despite them being the ones who instigated the negotiations. Additionally, attempting negotiations while keeping up the trade embargos also served as a deter because it hinders the Japanese ability to stall their efforts for the negotiations, as it would otherwise lead to a major scarcity of resources for the war and the homeland.

Answer 37

Japanese bombers attacked the US naval base in Hawaii. Despite 90% of the mid-Pacific air and sea power destroyed/badly damaged, the aircraft carrier capability survived, which was a huge contributor to Japan’s loss. 2403 military and civilian people were killed before war was waged. ------------------------------------------ Reaction from the US: * American people were united for a war against the Japanese * Congress accepted Roosevelt’s Declaration of War * Increased Britain’s morale because, as Churchill remarked, the entry of the US in WWII would be a guaranteed win.

Answer 38

The Americans, having underestimated the Japanese ability, were extremely angered by the “deceitful” nature of the dual action [negotiations and military attack] This move was also a terrible idea by the Japanese [ a miscalculation of their foresight of American reaction ] because it was a key event that allowed the government to convince the public to enter a state of war. Additionally, due to the failure to destroy the most crucial military assets [aircraft carriers], the Japanese had set up their own doom.

Answer 39

Japan was highly dependent on global trade, and when tariffs increased, exports in turn decreased. * Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act: duty of 200% on Japanese goods Plummeted the silk industry Poverty and unemployment at 3 million in Japan --------------------------------------- This crisis made Manchuria appealing because of: * Resources * Living space for the Japanese overpopulation * Buffer against the USSR * Market that could withstand the Great Depression.

Answer 40

There was global questioning of the international economic order. It turned into major distrust in democratic states, thereby deteriorating the relationship between the West and Japan. Essentially, the Japanese were forced into a situation that catered to both their imperialistic aims and their domestic issues. As they already had strong bases there, it offers little benefits invading the area because one could get them through trade or diplomacy. It was only through direct control could Japan attain its living space and full control of the resources. Thus, it appears to be a matter of situational pressure to carry out its imperialist goals in this manner.

Answer 41

1. Left-wing: “Militarist capitalist clique” are to be blamed for the 15 year war, as the Japanese population was indoctrinated by them through education [of their place in Asia] 2. Right-wing: Japan’s invasion of SouthEast Asia was to free those nations from colonization + Oil embargo forced Japan into war 3. Revisionist: A lack of US action against the invasion of China boosted Japanese confidence, and therefore allowed it to build up until the Pearl Harbour breaking point.

Answer 42

chinese communism revolution at home occupation of japan by foreign powers

Answer 43

→ Key figure in the German army in WW1, thus has experience with the war itself, and the top decisions made to protect Germany. → Hoped that better and fairer terms would come into play with Woodrow Wilson, thus led to actions like handing power to the government led by Prince Max of Baden. Thoroughly disappointed with the treaty, as it did not meet the impression that Ludendorff had of Wilson.

Answer 44

1. Undo the Treaty of Versailles to the largest extent possible a. E.g. Reunite all German-speaking people 2. Race and Lebensraum a. As the superior Aryan race, the need for more living and recreational space was emphasized upon. 3. Natural enemies and allies a. USSR and France were enemies due to communist or historical rivalry b. Britain was a potential ally as it showed sympathy towards Germany, and it had captured Hitler’s respect [small nation:big empire] ; Italy was an ally due to Mussolini’s support

Answer 45

* Restore Germany’s position in the international community * Revise terms of the TOV Achieved through - 1925 Locarno Treaties, 1926 League of Nations membership, 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact

Answer 46

* Andreas Hillgruber = intentionalism * Had a checklist [Mein Kampf], and did set forth to achieve them * Zara Steiner = Intentionalism [to the extreme] * He was the driving force, regardless of the international community (thus suggesting the circumstances merely aided Hitler, but it did not build him) * AJP Taylor = opportunist * There was no blueprint on how to carry out the desired ‘aims’. Furthermore, several of these aims were driven from internal demand and economic pressure, instead of Hitler’s own “master plan”

Answer 47

There are overlaps, like the revisionism of the Treaty of Versailles [shared by Streseman as well]. In terms of building an empire and expanding, it is similar to the Kaiser Wilhelm II’s aims. However, there were many different elements of how such aims would be achieved, as well as the extent that such foreign policies would be achieved. Additionally, the characterization is the main difference - both wanted a Greater Germany, but it was Hitler that justified it using the Master Race Theory, and thus would expand much further than envisioned by the Kaiser for his own plans.

Answer 48

1. Japanese expansionism in Far East became a concern 2. Resources overstretched in the British empire 3. Sought to use Hitler against Stalin

Answer 49

1. Too weak to act alone * Politically weak + economic problems 2. Built alliances with Poland and Little Entente 3. Highly concerned about German threat to French mainland

Answer 50

Failure [effectively everyone ignored it - Germany, Britain and the USSR). Ended with Franco winning.

Answer 51

Britain’s aim was to prevent the Republicans from receiving aid [thus causing them to lose] (specifically regarding economic aid)

Answer 52

set up a NIC. This way, they did not make enemies with either sides, thereby protecting their own security [at the price of their allies (USSR)]

Answer 53

* Chamberlain distrusted Stalin * Alliance could push Poland and Spain into an alliance with Germany * Red Army was weak after Stalin’s purges

Answer 54

“militarily intervene in any internal fascist activities”. to take over nations (e.g. Poland)

Answer 55

During the Conference for International Disarmament, most nations were unwilling to disarm, especially France * Germany used this to his advantage: France’s reluctancy is a sign that the conference was an attempt to undermine Germany from self-defence [then pulled out] Nov 1933 - Plebiscite showed 95% agreement for leaving

Answer 56

1. Removed international shackles from being held accountable for the Treaty, thereby allowing more freedom to maneuver around the politics [rearming the Rhineland, for example] 2. Also, as the LON was viewed as a victor’s club, leaving was a sign of nationalism among the people [plebiscite could have been exacerbated for the sake of propaganda, however].

Answer 57

Mussolini’s rejected Hitler’s request for taking Austria as a “satellite state” * Aware of Hitler’s expansionist views Hitler went on to found the Austria Nazi Party that led a campaign of intimidation and terrorism and the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss * Led to Italy intervening to prevent any form of Nazi entry into Austria -------------------------------------------------- Nothing was done except for verbal protest [futile, as politics forced everyone to remain silent] (also no one willing to go to war at this stage).

Answer 58

While this setback did prevent Hitler’s progression, after the course of the Spanish Civil War, Italy granted permission to take Austria as a satellite state. Appears intentionalists [in joining the SCW to achieve Anschluss], as it provided a platform for Hitler to show Mussolini that their aims as right-wing dictators were aligned Bullock: Evidence of how Hitler combined opportunism and intentionalism

Answer 59

→ Already ongoing [Rapallo Treaty 1922] -------------- 1936: Rate was unsatisfactory for Hitler * shortages for basic consumer goods [butter, meat] started; imports and foreign exchange decreased = believed land and living space would help, thus put the economy under the party’s control -------------------------------------------------- Britain and France attempted to bring Germany back through proposing its own disarmament conditions [easier to negotiate among three parties]. 1935: After realizing German rearmament and conscription was ongoing, France and British stopped their attempts.

Answer 60

Hitler merely accelerated the processes of overturning the TOV’s terms, which the Weimar Republic was already engaging in.

Answer 61

Used the Spanish Civil War and Abyssinia as a smokescreen to achieve this. France was not in a position to oppose due to having a “Caretaker” government. It could not engage in an aggressive foreign policy as it wasn’t in a stable position, and thus, forced to take the neutral position. Additionally, the military of both France and Britain attempted to convince their governments that a war with Germany would end unsuccessful and wasteful [Fr- overstated number of troops from 30,000 to 265,000 ; Br - claimed overstretched military commitments] Instead, British policy was to be diplomatic and settle the situation by allowing Germany to remilitarize the Rhineland

Answer 62

Many [although the minority] saw the remilitarization of the Rhineland as the crossing of the Rubicon - it was what gave Hitler to strength and confidence to carry out even more extravagant foreign policies * A view of the minority, supported by Hindsight

Answer 63

[Streseman wanted land from Poland back (unwilling to accept Eastern borders)] Although the international community saw it as ironic, given that Poland has German territory, but there was strategic motives behind this pact [much like the Nazi-Soviet Pact] → Secure Eastern border until Hitler was ready to face Poland → Destroy France’s plan to encircle Germany with enemies → Cover to mislead the world into thinking Germany was peaceful

Answer 64

This is one of the events that indicates the intentionalism of Hitler’s actions: He had to foresight of a Polish interference, and thus decided to bring its politics under control [to the degree he needed through the Pact] Additionally, it undermined collective security as Poland no longer had alliance with other nations that were against Germany [Czechoslovakia and France], thereby breaking open the collective security barrier for Germany to slowly capture its surrounding nations Additionally, the Little Entente was also undermined from Italy’s influence [although it’s degree is questionable].

Answer 65

The Plebiscite had at 91% vote for returning to Germany

Answer 66

First legal overturn of the TOV, and thus was used as major propaganda

Answer 67

Ensured legal accountability to aid one another in the event of war. Additionally the RBA had secret protocols meant in setting out mutual interests Pacify the world stage by claiming Austria’s independence, while having secret clauses of how the Nazis would control the Austraian government Additionally [falls under Aggressive Policies/Actions], Schuschnigg was abused to accept this agreement [that favoured Nazi politicians in Austria]. Later on, Schuschnigg attempted to organize a plebiscite for German take over, but Hitler found out before and invaded before legal action could intervene

Answer 68

The militant nature of these treaties were the first signs of Hitler’s aggressive phase for his foreign policies, especially considering the ties with Japan [militaristic] However, aggression towards Communism was a common trend throughout the West [democratic or dictator] The Western world appeared to be settled with these diplomatic acts that Hitler put forward to assert his “peaceful policies”. Fischer - sees the situation as a gamble that perpetuated Hitler’s delusion that it was his strategy

Answer 69

An exchange between Hitler and Chamberlain about how to settle this conflict. Here, Hitler goes through several ‘phases’ of attitude: 1. 15 - Willing to settle the matter simply [after transfer of Sudetenland] 2. 22-23 - Switched to assertive: Declared German occupation by 28th September 3. 29 - Britain says Fr and Br are willing to fight Additionally, Nazi Generals advised against starting war this earky Thus, Hitler accepted accepted for a conference to negotiate and in the end, got Sudetenland by 1st October -------------------------------------------------- France: Despite treaties to protect Czechoslovakia, there was no practical ability to do so. * Thus had to follow through with Britain’s policies [+ also pushed that Czechoslovakia could not be saved] Britain: Similar to France + did not view Czechoslovakia as worthy for saving (artificial, unsustainable)

Answer 70

Some suspect that this was one of Hitler’s maneuverings in order to enter war with Czechoslovakia, not a peaceful “handover” of land. This could potentially be tied to the fascist ideology of entering war as the ideal foreign policy. Additionally, in terms of propaganda, it was likely that a peaceful handover would not suffice in rallying the people in the national spirit It should be noted that France’s and Britain’s lack of concern for Czechoslovakia’s future is what signed it off to its doom of being overtaken by Germany * No willingness to stop Hitler at this point, likely due to the politicians' overtrust in diplomacy

Answer 71

Drafted after invasion of Albania * Clause include mutual aid if drown into “undesirable” hostility. * Mussolini also informed Hitler that Italy would need 3-4 more years to prepare for war -------------------------------------------------- With Italy lost as an ally, and diplomacy only leading to failure, Britain and France both started militarily strengthening (conscription, perfecting air-force and radar).

Answer 72

Kershaw: Hitler saw war as a step in fulfilling the mission, not a conventional military action. * If the process did not include war, it was not satisfied. This aligns well with the fascist ideology [probably then appealing to Mussolini]

Answer 73

The USSR had to resort to a non-aggression pact with Germany because: * Prior attempts to promote collective security [LON, French-Soviet Pact] fell due to the distrust towards Communism Clauses of the Pact included: * Both sides remained neutral if attacked by a third party * (Secret) Division of Europe between the two nations [Poland = half to each]

Answer 74

Results: * Attacked Poland without fear of two frontier war * Trade for raw materials

Answer 75

Germany’s Role: * Transported Franco’s troops from Morocco to Spain * Bombed civilian centres * Attacked spanish government ships Reasons for joining the war: * Alliance with fellow dictator and area for military bases * Test out air force attacks

Answer 76

Results: Reinforced suspicious between France/Britain and USSR [therefore undermined international effort to contain fascism] Distraction for the West, allowing Hitler to expand into the Rhineland [1936] Italy has become friendlier with Germany, thereby allowing Germany to accomplish “Anschluss” as there is no more perceived threat to Italy’s own position.

Answer 77

Heinlein led a Sudeten German Party to demand for independence and segregation of the Sudeten Germans from the rest of Czechoslovakia. May Crisis (1938) → accusation from Czechoslovakia, Britain and France that Germany was planning an invasion Inspired Operation Green [28th May] Sudeten Germans were increasingly violent against the government, with Hitler backing them Anti-Czechoslovakian propaganda everywhere [‘plight’ of the Sudeten Germans’ mistreatment] Marshall Law had to be used to suppress the chaos The MC cost Czech 70% of its heavy industry, ⅓ of its population, and its natural defense. Effectively, weakened to the point where it could no longer support itself in the face of an invasion.

Answer 78

Despite being funded by the Nazi Party, Hitler was unsure about how he should go about the situation [opportunistic in his method surrounding in invasion tactic (similar to Fischer’s views from the second Anschluss)] Extremely humiliating This chaos provoked a drastic response from the international community. What appeared to be growing tensions that could escalate into war was something Chamberlain wanted to avoid * And thus, began a series of talks [Munich Agreements] The Munich Conference was a stepping stone in the liquidation of the Czech state - Stackelberg This was either the final straw/turning point in British foreign policy: it changed from appeasement to deterrence

Answer 79

Initially, characterized it as a diplomatic action due to the German territory it had from the Treaty of Versailles [Danzig, separation of East Prussia from the mainland] 30th March - Guaranteed provided by France and Britain to Poland for protection against Germany More difficult to guarantee Poland because: * Right-winged military dictatorship too * Militarily, it was harder to send forces over to defend

Answer 80

At this point, due to the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Britain had lost all faith in Hitler’s claims to merely “undo the terms of TOV” Angered him to the point of break the Non-Aggression Pact with Poland and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. But it was likely that there was no choice, as Poland was seen as the final frontier before Germany became too strong.

Answer 81

Unexpected support for Poland [ultimately weaker thus harder to defend than Czech] Attempted to shake British-Polish relation by a last minute proposal to reach an agreement on disarmament in exchange for Danzig and the Polish Corridor 31st August: Mussolini proposed a peace conference, but Hitler declined it for war -------------------------------------------------- Germany claimed Poland attacked a wireless station near the border, and thus invaded Poland

Answer 82

At this point, it was likely the Rubicon - once Poland fell, Germany would be too strong to negotiate with. Worked before [in 1934], and thus, probably hoped it could work again. Intentionalist - planned the circumstance to come to this point of war. A manufactured situation from Germany, and therefore shows the extent of planning to create scenes - real or false - to attain goals. * Excuse for war Watt: No one wanted war, but everyone just got involved reluctantly.

Answer 83

April 1940: Denmark and landed in Norweigian ports 10th May 1940: Holland, Belgium and France attacked [and soon surrendered] Autumn 1940 - Air battle between British Royal Air Force and the Luffwaffe over airspace over the English Channel. * Bombarded London and other cities in hopes of breaking British morale [until Winston Churchill rallied the country again] June 1941 - Operation Barbarossa against USSR * Hoped Britain would soon fall, so more focus can go on the Eastern Frontline However, due to overstretching its army and resources, inability to take down Britain, a weak ally (Italy) that proved to be a liability, and the new enemy of the US, Hitler ended up only dragging on the war beyond the necessary, eventually leading to his defeat. Germany was moving too fast for Britain and France to help. Almost overtaken until 1942, after Operation Barbarossa suffered a major loss, and Japan attacked the US, effectively destroying its policy of isolation.

Answer 84

Hossbach Memorandum [and its content] : Meeting to discuss war - Here, Hitler decided to remove those uncommitted to war plans [i.e. invasion of Czechoslovakia] like Blomberg and Fritsch * Historian Darby = Fritsch-Blomberg affair was third milestone in Fuhrer's climb to absolutist power * [Night of the Long Knives and Reichstag Fire] However, Memorandum was fragmented when discovered, and thus any impression it gives is extremely biased and incomplete AJP Taylor: Exposition was ideological and “day-dreaming”, and not an accurate representation of anything he had attempted in real-life” * Thereby suggesting that despite his extreme ideology, he was extremely pragmatic with his actions [seen in the Non-aggression Pact with Poland]

Answer 85

* Churchill: Appeasement allowed Hitler to continue to build up his aggressive policies into the war. This was especially the case as the appeasers were weak, fearful, and ignorant to Hitler’s evil intentions. * Overy: Chamberlain forced Hitler to enter war before Germany was prepared, mostly because Britain was [allegedly] at its strongest.

Answer 86

* Lack of national identity: * Piedmont’s [dominant state] political system and laws enforced throughout Italy, without concern about other states’ own systems: * Northern Italy was more prosperous than Southern Italy: * A breakdown in the relationship between the state and church * As Catholic Churches no longer support/influence politics, they told their followers to abstain from the system: * The corruption of the benefactors of the liberal system * Historically has only served the middle and upper class citizens, and their mindsets were often apathetic towards the issues of the middle class: o 1892 - Italian Socialist Party formed, but forcefully banned, along with trade unions:

Answer 87

Recently united in 1961, and therefore,( a cohesive sense of nationalism was not built into or emphasized upon yet [the government either did not have the necessary time or effort to rally this spirit].

Answer 88

This conformation without concern likely caused dissatisfaction in the people, who thought this way was unfair towards them, thus, generating resentment towards the state.

Answer 89

As the north was more industrialized than the agrarian south, it was richer by default. This also fueled the divide between the two hemispheres as they did not view each other as one cohesive group of people, but rather different groups, divided by income. The economic divide also generated jealousy and envy, thereby hindering any sort of co-operation.

Answer 90

Created divide within society in terms of religious beliefs

Answer 91

Led to disbelief in the system, and created unrest

Answer 92

o 1892 - Italian Socialist Party formed, but forcefully banned, along with trade unions: Outlets for the Middle-class and peasants to engage in politics for their own welfare were cut out, thereby showing how the institution simply did not care for their welfare. This disbelief and resentment was generalized to the system, which allowed for the radical change of governance to be accepted.

Answer 93

* Economic sink for the government, that during a time of recession, caused further issues * War seen as imperialist, and thus contradicted with the idea of liberal democracy. This generated more disbelief in the system [compounding factor]

Answer 94

Reasons for joining: Divided, and rather self-fulfilling instead of being in the best interest of the state. To the people, another indication of the corruption of the liberal system. * Right-winged parties (Nationalists and Futurists; later, King Victor Emmanuel III) encouraged joining the war in order to gain back Italian-speaking territory from the Austro-Hungarian empire. * The Left became divided on this issue: o The interventionist Left also set up “Revolutionary Action Camps” in support of the war, as they thought it would create an opportunity for an internal revolution. o Only the Socialist Party stood against it, viewing it as imperialistic.

Answer 95

Impact of the war: This impact is what set the scene up for the fascist take over, as the population, then in disbelief about their current system, was radicalized to accept any change that would change Italy [presumingly, for the better]. * The 3-year static war left Italy destroyed o 600,000+ dead, with hundreds of thousands injured. * The nation became politically charged and active against the actions of the liberal government o Saw it as “mismanagement”, and thus, resented their planning o Trade Unions and Political parties, who saw an increase of membership during the war, also became militant in their approach to politics.

Answer 96

o Weakness of the government o Unable to meet public expectations  Government officials quarrelled over which territory to demand for, but ended up with nothing o Disgust in the Versailles settlements for being unfairly biased towards the “Big Three” o D’Annunzio’s invasion of the Fiume port as a retaliation against the Italian government’s decision to hand it to Yugoslavia.  The government was too “feeble” to change the situation until Giolitti returned as prime minister [proved the government was inadequate] o Economic crisis  High inflation when workers/middle-class only had fixed-salaries  Unemployment - 2 million [end of 1919]

Answer 97

in march 1919

Answer 98

o Communist Party was formed in 1921, attempting to challenge the liberal government o Mussolini was already better established + had backing from wealthy landowners / upper class + offered ideological and physical opposition to the violent fascists.

Answer 99

o Mussolini used political maneuvering around the current system, that faced threat due to Communists/Socialists attempts of take over. This landed him talks of government formation with Fascist in October 1922. o 24th October + 27th October → Seen as the forceful takeover of the liberal government  Done solely to satisfy the people’s disbelief and to propagate a notion of strength and power  However, Mussolini already had some degree of political support. Additionally, the King had decided to back Mussolini over the liberal government. Result: He was offered Prime Minister, thus attaining power.

Answer 100

* November 1922: Vote in emergency powers to reform administration and tax system. * July 1923: Acerbo Law Passed [biggest party = automatic ⅔ of parliament] * Best interest of forming a stable coalition, and thus a strong government that can actually deliver policies. * Essentially allowed the fascist to have a majority control over the cabinet, thereby effectively have little to no effect from opposition. * Used the aftermath of Matteotti’s assassination’s (May 1925) as an opportunity to rise to power * 3rd January 1925: After Mussolini claimed responsibility for the violence of the fascist members against Matteotti, opposition resigned from parliament in protest * Here, he established himself as Il Duce [dictator]. From here, a series of laws were implemented to turn the country into a totalitarian state. * December 1925: Trade Unions/Political Parties - Banned ; Strict control over the press ; new governmental officials were appointed rather than elected. * November 1925 - January 1926: Secret Police Founded ; {power to arrest increased ; trials without jury took over. Essentially removed any form of political communication between the people and the authoritarian state. Freedom of speech was limited and removed to the greatest extent, thereby ensuring that no one could speak out against the state / instigate a revolution.

Answer 101

Typical traits: Cult of Personality, Employees loyal to the state, Youths indoctrinated through youth movements; Monitored opposition * Monarchy still existed, and had the power to dismiss Mussolini * Church had stronger influence [along with landowning elites] in the South than the Fascists. thus power consolidation was in politics, but the reality did not reflect the same.

Answer 102

* Best interest of forming a stable coalition, and thus a strong government that can actually deliver policies. * Essentially allowed the fascist to have a majority control over the cabinet, thereby effectively have little to no effect from opposition. * Used the aftermath of Matteotti’s assassination’s (May 1925) as an opportunity to rise to power

Answer 103

december 1925

Answer 104

november 1925 - january 1926 {power to arrest increased ; trials without jury took over.

Answer 105

Essentially removed any form of political communication between the people and the authoritarian state. Freedom of speech was limited and removed to the greatest extent, thereby ensuring that no one could speak out against the state / instigate a revolution.

Answer 106

How did Fascism maintain power? Typical traits: Cult of Personality, Employees loyal to the state, Youths indoctrinated through youth movements; Monitored opposition * Monarchy still existed, and had the power to dismiss Mussolini * Church had stronger influence [along with landowning elites] in the South than the Fascists. thus power consolidation was in politics, but the reality did not reflect the same.

Answer 107

* Wanted to make Italy an influential power in Europe → this will to attain this policy was exacerbated with the disappointment with the outcome of the Versailles Settlement o Essentially pointed out the leading nations for the next century, as the Settlement handed territory, and thus power and influence, in the concentrated hand of a few nations.  This spurred Mussolini to attempt to push Italy into a more significant position in the international community. Although not exclusively Fascism-related, it was on their agenda as a nationalist party, and therefore, would contribute as under the ideology of “Fascism”. Additionally, several other policies were built from Mussolini’s whim, and because he claimed himself to be fascist, those policies thus became associated with the ideology. There are inconsistencies with the original definition of fascisms [treatment of religion, communist nations, and other influential sources] that Italy does not conform to, further highlighting Mussolini’s ‘personalized’ fascism to fit his own requirements.

Answer 108

locarno treaties 1925 kellogg briand pact 1928 realtionship with ussr turned bad stresa front april 1935

Answer 109

* While Italian-Austrian borders were not discussed, Mussolini played a vital role in the “period of new hope” * Mussolini had to support the LON until the Italian army became strong enough

Answer 110

3. Mussolini was pragmatic with Lenin’s regime and thus recognized the Communist government [only officially in 1924] to negotiate 2 trade agreements with Moscow [1921] a. This decision was thought to gain diplomatic leverage against other nations 4. Rapallo Treaty of 1922 a. Renounced territorial/financial claims from WW1

Answer 111

First attempted Anschluss * Hitler’s Policy here failed as Mussolini wanted an independent Austria. * The assassination of Austrian Chancellor triggered Mussolini to mobilize troops in order to establish Italy’s stance. At this point in time, Hitler’s and Mussolini’s relationship were not close, with the latter being the dominant figure between the two.

Answer 112

* Stance against Hitler’s expansionist policies, but undermined by Britain’s appeasement policy [Anglo-German Naval Agreement [June 1924] * Additionally, this strategy was weak with no binding support backing it from any of the nations. * It was seen as Italy’s barrier against German rearmament [for fear of a takeover]. Plans to invade Abyssinia was conveyed At this point, it appears that Mussolini is siding with Britain [and consequently, France] in order to achieve his foreign policy aims as the two nations were the most influential powers at the time. It was only after the betrayal that he turned to Hitler as the ‘Future’ of Europe and the power that would allow Mussolini to gain his goals. Here, it is collective security collapsing as no one was willing to put in the resources and effort to fight for the collective good.

Answer 113

* Pact of Steel [22nd May 1939] + Rome-Berlin Axis [25th Oct 1936] + Anti-Comintern Pact [Nov 1937] o Characterized as “changing diplomatic alignment” o End of participation in Collective security as Mussolini now backed and encouraged Hitler’s Foreign Policies → Pact was signed between Germany, Japan and Italy * Moved away from Britain-leaning to befriend Germany [also in line with the ‘spread’ of fascism overseas. * Left the League of Nations in Dec 1937

Answer 114

o Increase National Pride o Consolidate domestic support for regime - Regime was necessary to produce a manifestation of Italian success, that would then build the Italian Nationalism spirit o Foreign Policy  Build Empire (2nd Great Rome Empire) in Africa, and create spheres of Influence in the Balkans

Answer 115

Influence in the Balkans * Attitude towards France - Hostility o Italy had claims over French territories [Nice and Sardina] o Jealousy of French colony in Africa o Wanted to replace French influence in Balkans [Little Entente] 1923 * Corfu Incident: Invasion of Greek island after an Italian General was shot there by Greek authorities. * LON demanded withdrawal of troops, but it was Britain’s threat of the force of its navy that got Mussolini to listen * Regardless, Italy was compensated with 50 million lira, to Mussolini’s demand. 1924 * Italy managed to get Yugoslavia to concede the Fiume port. This incident portrayed Yugoslavia as a target for enslaving as a sphere of influence. Thus, started funding ethnic groups that were fighting for independence * Zog rose to power in Albania [Italian-backed] * Treaty of Friendship in 1926 → turned into Italian protectorate * Trained army / Invested in regime Control over African nations 1. Abyssinia - a. Signed the “Treaty of Friendship” in 1928 despite ambitions of conquest b. Supported entry into League of Nations in 1923

Answer 116

Prior invasion: France gave the green light for the invasion [refer to Franco-Italian agreement], while Britain stayed silent [thus taken as a sign of agreement with France] 1935: Foreign Secretary Eden went to appease Italian expansionism [with British Somaliland] → Made Italians think that Britain would do anything to pacify them, thus rejected them [weakness of appeasement without the alternate threat/undesirable option thus makes the policy look like weakness] * December 1934: Dispute at Wal Wal Oasis [30 Italian soldiers dead] * Mussolini demanded an apology and compensation * When Abyssinian emperor tried to appeal for a League investigation, Mussolini waged total conquest and won rather quickly. Actions of Br/Fr for their own agenda Actions of Br/Fr for the League Franco-Italian Agreement * Exchange of alliance against Hitler for freedom in Abyssinia and parts of French colony Somaliland Special session to discuss crisis, but no actual aid was put forward to help the Abyssinians Arms embargo with Abyssinia as well, in an attempt to not insult Italy [as the potential ally] Arms embargo on Italy in an ‘effort’ to deter its expansionist policies. Removed warships in the Suez Canal to allow free movement of supplies for Mussolini ‘Sanctions’ placed on Italy: * No war essentials included [coal, oil] Hoare-Laval Pact 1936 - Appeasement treaty to maintain the Stresa Front. Failure: Pushed Italy away from Anglophilic policies and towards Germany Impact on the International Community * League of Nations undermined as a sham * Took the spotlight while Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * Success in domestic sector: Built up national spirit [look at Economic Policies of 1930s for more info]. Exacerbated with LON’s condemnation → but short-term * Negative Impact on relationships with Western Nations o Turning point in strategy: The West was no longer a viable option to gain his foreign policies of building his empire and spheres of influence. Thus, a switch of alliance had to be made: To Hitler, which then help propagate his aim of “spreading Fascism overseas” o Additionally, Roosevelt (USA) sent a warning: “Failure of achieving peaceful settlement in East Africa would lead to calamity and adverse effects for all nations” [but the US couldn’t do anything due to its isolationist policy] * Economic failure due to ironic and irreconcilable characteristics and aims that Mussolini tried to pursue that ended up horribly against his favour. o “Perfect Target”: Make up for 1896 loss, had troops from surrounding colonies, and given Italy’s advanced technology, it would have been an easy win. o It also had ‘benefits’: a potential market and territory for emigration. o Ended up being a resource sink, after economy failed to achieve its over-demanding role of attaining an autarky state that could sustain a war. o Additionally, sanctions, as ineffective in stopping the war, were in place, and had an impact of the Italian economy  16 billion lira deficit in budget  October 1936: Lira dropped in value by 40%  Dragged out War remained as a sink [only lost in 1941 to the British]

Answer 117

Purpose: * Mimic Hitler’s strength → total invasion of Czechoslovakia motivated Italy to do the same * Pursuing ambitions of dominating the Adriatic Event: * King Zog attempted to rebel against Italy with agreements with Greece and Yugoslavia and resisting Mussolini’s demand for submission. 6th April → Anti-Italy demonstrations by the Albanians * Mussolini gave them a warning of an invasion, but the country was prepared to resist. * During invasion, due to small numbers, treason by spies, and limited and ineffective equipment, Albania lost to Italy Result: * Italy here established its empire and combined its foreign offices, armies, and declared King Emmanuel of Italy to be King of Albania too. Importance of Albania: Attack point of Greece during the war [1940] Result: * Turning point: Chamberlain lost all trust in dictators * Greek borders were guaranteed by British Military [surprised Mussolini, and thus made him stall his invasion plans until later during the war].

Answer 118

→ Did not join until June 1940, mainly because it was not prepared for war yet. * However, given his Fascist views, the public viewed this as hypocritical. Factors that pushed Mussolini into war: * Image of Dictatorship * Radicalization of Regime - opportunity to rid the nation of the Church and other opposition * National Pride - the “revolution spirit” that was fueled from Abyssinia, Albania and Spain now played into the push factor. * Economy o Britain blocked all German coal ports in 1940, and given Italy’s dependency on German exports, it waged war to open those ports again * Potential for territorial gains that would expand the Italian empire Failure: Fronts opened by Italy in Greece and Egypt were overwhelmed by the British forces. Germany did temporarily come in and pushed back the British forces until the Americans joined later on.

Answer 119

In the 1930s, with different social conditions [failing Corporate State, increasing pressure to pursue foreign policy], he decided to aid Hitler in the quest for global dominance. * Mussolini secretly trained German pilots, funded right-winged groups in Germany, support independent movements in Morocco against France, and essentially pursued policies in self-interest 6th Jan 1936 - Mussolini allowed Austria to become a German satellite state 22nd Feb 1936 - Agreed to let Germany rearm the Rhineland * Essentially, no longer supporting the Locarno treaties, and thereby effectively cutting off ties with the Western Democracies that failed to help him attain his aims

Answer 120

* Additionally, France had ties with left-winged groups, and thus, Mussolini characterized his reasoning for entering this war as a “prevention to stop communism from spreading”, thereby, also communicating his desire to undermine France. * Also aided in fostering the “revolutionary” spirit [see Economic Policies of 1930s for more information]

Answer 121

* Economic Cost: Lira devalued; ½ of foreign currency reserves lost o Led to an increase in trading with Germany * Military cost: ⅓ arm stocks used; lost to International Brigades in March 1937 [military weakness exposed + reputation lose]. * Relationships: o Franco remained neutral to fix the Spanish domestic sphere [Thus, Mussolini gained nothing] o Germany and Italy forged closer ties o Britain and France both became more hostile.

Answer 122

Economy was needed to fund his Foreign Policies, and therefore, to create a stable economy these were his policies [Spread of Fascism overseas and the building of the 2nd Roman Empire] * Wanted to achieve autarky and ability to support a militaristic state [rather opposing goals that would be very demanding on the population if not planned properly]. Both Socialism and Capitalism had their flaws, so the planning of the economy had to be made from scratch * Had the support of the upper class, and thus needed to cater to their needs * Supposedly the best case for the lower class

Answer 123

* Productivism o Heavy Industry prioritized over consumer good o High taxation → burden on the working class * Other issues that would prevent the achievement of both policies * Low Literacy Rate * Under-developed South * Limited resources 1939 : Led to 28 billion lira deficit in annual budget * Given that there was overseas war going on Corporate State * New mode of economic planning * All people worked towards the national interest; based on system of corporations * Served national interests ; was regulated ; served everyone’s interest ; ceased class conflict Adv: Kept divergent forces from politicizing Disadv: Labour was exploited to extreme ends

Answer 124

Increased in grain production; 75% decrease in import; Certain crops decreased in production’; South’s soil unsuited for wheat - led to bad harvest Poverty in South was not addressed, and even with successes, it did not fully achieve the desired aims. Result: Failure

Answer 125

Exports decreased; Imports became more expensive [due to tariffs] Failure as it made the economy extremely weak, with the lack of a good circulation of money Result: Failure

Answer 126

Great Depression [Oct 1929] * Lira overvalued * US investment withdrew * Farmers suffered from price drop in grain * Unemployment hit 2 million * Bank of Italy nearly collapsed

Answer 127

Istituto Mobiliare Italiano 1931 started to provide financial support to banks and industries * Allocation of raw materials brought under state control Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale 1933 took over company and bank shares ------------------------------------ Result: 2nd Biggest Public sector was created - 20% of key companies Also had public work programs

Answer 128

While he had saved Italy from social/economic upheaval [therefore, short-term success in maintaining power] However, as the impact was only minimized but not removed, Mussolini sought to use a distraction to fuel their “revolutionary spirit” in order to forget the domestic issues as their attention is faced elsewhere [ Diversionary Foreign Policy ] This then led to him pursue a more “dynamic” and “inspirational” foreign policy that would fuel the national spirit.

Answer 129

* Looked to Abyssinia and Spain as the targets for distraction

Answer 130

* Left-wing: Had expansionist policies and was intentionally overtly aggressive * Right-wing (De Felice): It was the Abyssinian crisis that shaped his policies into aggressive ones - otherwise, he was willing to achieve his goals within the working framework of the world at that time [only aiming for Abyssinia for it was one of the last African nations left untouched]. * German Historian Schreiber: Victim to promise made to the public, and thus forced to go through with those policies even if it brought the downfall of the empire [Abyssinia (when war didn’t end), and joining WW2]

Answer 131

Diplomatic policy of making concessions to nations in order to avoid conflict.

Answer 132

Weak and dishonourable → Allowed Germany and Italy to get away with territorial demands Arguable the reason for why the war came into fruition Winston Churchill, Cartoonist David Low

Answer 133

Seen as the peaceful tactic that settled disputes successfully → Public was against war and demanded for collective security. Due to the democratic system, politicians were forced to obey [Impact of World War One on the public was crucial in shaping the foreign policies of the Western nations] → Appeared justified - Versailles Settlement was extremely unfair, and Conservative Politicians feared communism more than fascism → No other policy appeared as functional, given Britain’s weakened state [rearmament was not a feasible first-option, due to the economic situation] * Became especially true after the Great Depression → Due to other commitments and defense [own empire], it could not afford to spend resources on curling fascist regimes [contrary to the fascist states]. → Neville Chamberlain: Prime Minister throughout the pre-WW2 period. * Believed in appeasement and detested war. Additionally, thought that Britain should be the frontier of negotiations.

Answer 134

* France and Britain had tried to balance both pursuing their own interest and that of the League of Nations, considering they [and the international community as a whole] put themselves up as the ‘leaders’ within the LON. * This is what led to many slip-ups, where attempts to pursue both policies failed as they were both irreconcilable [wanting Italy to remain an ally: meant allowing them to continue with their imperialistic attempts in Abyssinia. In their own interest, there would be no problem, but as representatives of the LON, they could not allow such ‘violence’..

Answer 135

League of Nations: Completely ineffective * Stuck in a cyclic nature of : (1) Powerless in the face of aggressive military fascist state because no one wants to put in the effort (2) Lost respect and authority, which leads to disillusionment from nations of using the LON as a means of settling diplomacy.

Answer 136

neutral due to policty of isolationism worked mainly in self interesdt

Answer 137

* It did not pity Germany, especially due to: * Huge Debts * 10% land laid waste * Huge loss of life and trauma for survivors These factors led the Public to have an opinion of revenge over Germany. Then * USA failed to ratify TOV and join LON * Britain shows sympathy Thus, France went ahead and * Formed the Little Entente [with a mutual defence agreement] * Upheld the TOV terms with the Ruhr invasion

Answer 138

Political instability → Frequent change in government and irreconcilable ideologies led to no action against Germany throughout the 1920s-30s. Additionally The Great Depression severely weakened its power, and did not have any means to pursue aggressive policies. = Thus, it had to collaborate with Britain, the only other nation with more influence, and had to pursue a diplomatic approach [through appeasement]

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