condensed essay plans auth states Flashcards
economic conditions for the rise of Mussolini
rise of socialism
- Communism appeals to lots of people in a time of need
- Bolshevik Rev
- 2 red years
- Exploitation of workers
- ESP in south
- All classes supporting him
economic conditions for rise of nasser
HARSH DEPRESSION IN 1930S
= majority just above poverty line
* Average per capita income 1/10th that in GB * Farmers and landless labourers far below that * Fewer than 6% landowners owned 65% cultivatable land
* More than 77% (over 5s) were illiterate
* Life expectancy 36
PASHAS AND POVERTY
* Rural poverty led to burgeoning urban slums * Few workers’ rights (unions run by the state) * Robert Stephens sees the rich-poor divide as akin to pre-Revolutionary France – the pashas disappointed – led to failure of Parliamentary democracy p 13The government were mainly drawn from high-ranking ‘pashas’ who seemed more set on maintaining power than economic reform
* Immediate postwar period see unemployment and a weak economy
weaknesses of the political system in nasser’s rise to power
PSI will not work with PPI, win majority of 1919 and 1921 election, this breaks democracy because small liberals left.
King working for own self interests.
Transformismo
weakness of poltical system nasser
Political Division
* 1944 – 1950 – 2 PM assassinated. Minority govts. But hope returned 1950 with Wafd party * In October 1951, PM Nahas Pasha ended the 1936 Treaty - GB proposed MEDO (a middle eastern NATO) instead, but Egypt rejected it
* Egypt adopted a policy of non-cooperation with GB relating to the Canal Zone (labour, goods)
* In Ismailia GB troops fired on auxiliary police they suspected of supporting Suez liberation (41 killed and 71 wounded)
* This led to ‘Black Saturday’ (25 Jan. 1952) attacks and looting. King tried to appoint politicians – but couldn’t manage (not until Nasser)
* For Stephens ‘The King, the Wafd and the British who between the had ruled Egypt for the previous thirty years had now between them made Egypt ungovernable’ – the army now arose as the most powerful element in Egyptian politics. The British the targe
impact of war for mussolini
post war crisis 1918-22
allowed mussolini to promote fascist party
- widened the political and social divisions within Italy, rather than uniting Italians as many of the interventionists had hoped. The intervention crisis split the liberals irrevocably.
- 5 million Italians served in the armed forces and many of them, particularly the junior officers and NCOs who were drawn largely from the lower middle-class, were politicised by the experience. They blamed the liberal politicians for mismanaging the war and hated the PSI for failing to support the war.
- The Italian economy was mobilised to support total war. Industrial output expanded rapidly; for example, Fiat’s production of vehicles went up by 500% during the war, whilst its workforce grew from 4,000 to 40,000. Inevitably this would lead to huge economic dislocation when the war ended and the economy reverted to a peace-time footing.
- Inflation and food shortages became serious issues, with prices quadrupling between 1914 and 1918. To finance the war, the Italian government borrowed greatly. The government spent 148,000 million lire on the war; that was twice the total government expenditure in the entire period 1861–1914.
- There was growing unrest among the industrial working class as they suffered from the impact of price inflation, shortages and military-style discipline in factories producing war-related goods. In August 1917, the police and army killed 50 protestors in Turin after working-class demonstrations against prices and shortages. The increased militancy of the industrial workers was reflected in the expansion of trade union membership and the growth of the PSI.
mutilated victory
Italian Nationalists were furious at the terms of the peace treaties signed in Paris in 1919 and they were able to create the impression that the Italian army’s victories had been betrayed by Italy’s allies, who failed to give Italy greater gains, and by the Italian government of Vittorio Orlando for not standing up sufficiently for Italy’s interests. Italy was granted South Tyrol, Trieste and Trentino but did not receive Fiume or Dalmatia (which were awarded to the new state of Yugoslavia).
The nationalist poet, Gabriele D’Annunzio, coined the phrase ‘the mutilated victory’ to characterise the disappointment Italian patriots felt at having won the war but ‘lost the peace’. D’Annunzio led a force of 2,000 ex-soldiers, Nationalists and Futurists, and occupied Fiume in September 1919 in protest at the Italian government’s decision to hand it over to Yugoslavia as the Treaty of St Germain dictated. The government of Francesco Nitti felt unable to drive D’Annunzio out, so the occupation continued until Giolitti returned as prime minister and ejected D’Annunzio and his followers in December 1920.
impact of war for nasser rise to power
Palestine and Egypt
- Egyptian solidarity for the plight of Palestinians rose in the late 30’s, particularly during the Arab rebellion. - Mood in Egypt turned against the Zionists there, who were close with high society and power. - Students demanded the country arm them and send them into battle. - This happened, but was thrown hastily together, the day after Israel claimed statehood. - Nasser was a commander there, and had a hard time. Had to buy supplies from local merchants. Felt let down by the gov. Huge scandal over rumors that they had sold their good weapons and pocketed the profits. - Soldiers returned from war to an ambivalent response and a bad situation. - But important to note: the arab world hurt after the 48 war. Nasser was seen as the only leader strong enough to set things right
WW2
*In 1940 Italy attacked neutral Egypt
*Britain increased troop levels - economic impact. Increased nationalism
*Some Egyptian nationalists supported Germany in the hope of an end to GB influence
*Major turning point: On 4th Feb 1942, GB forced the (new, since 1936) King Farouk to appoint a Wafd Government under pro-GB PM Nahas Pasha
*GB surround palace with tanks – variously called the Abdin Palace Coup or the 4 February Incident
*Tarnished reputation of King Farouk and the Wafd Party. Nasser would learn from this
social division in mussolini’s rise to power
bienno rosso
North vs south divide
Catholic church
Liberal Italy
Growing working class and peasant unrest from the 1890s, culminating in general strike of 1914
Socio economic changes led to trade unions, peasant leagues etc
social division in nasser’s rise to power
1919 liberal revolution
Nationalist liberal revolution, ushered in parliament - Nasser and Sadat born at around this time, grew up hearing about its glory but saw only its failures - Popular anti-colonial uprising after the war led to a new reform era ushered in by English colonialists
Political Division * 1944 – 1950 – 2 PM assassinated. Minority govts. But hope returned 1950 with Wafd party * In October 1951, PM Nahas Pasha ended the 1936 Treaty - GB proposed MEDO (a middle eastern NATO) instead, but Egypt rejected it * Egypt adopted a policy of non-cooperation with GB relating to the Canal Zone (labour, goods) * In Ismailia GB troops fired on auxiliary police they suspected of supporting Suez liberation (41 killed and 71 wounded) * This led to ‘Black Saturday’ (25 Jan. 1952) attacks and looting. King tried to appoint politicians – but couldn’t manage (not until Nasser) * For Stephens ‘The King, the Wafd and the British who between the had ruled Egypt for the previous thirty years had now between them made Egypt ungovernable’ – the army now arose as the most powerful element in Egyptian politics. The British the target
coercion/propaganda in negotiating prime minister the rise of power mussolini
use of force
coercion/propaganda in negotiating prime minister the rise of power nasser
nasser’s speech after assassination attempt
leadership in mussolini’s rise to power
matteotti crisis 1924
from pm to duce
matteotti crisis
In June 1924, a political crisis erupted over the murder of the moderate Socialist leader, Giacomo Matteotti. He had delivered a major speech in the Chamber at the end of May, in which he launched a scathing attack on the illegal methods employed by the Fascists in the recent elections. Just under two weeks later, he was abducted in broad daylight in Rome and his body was eventually discovered in a ditch in August. It was clear that his murderers were Fascists, what was less so was the extent to which Mussolini was involved. The outrage caused by the murder threatened to overwhelm Mussolini and for a time it looked as if he would not survive as prime minister.
Moderate Fascists such as De Stefani and Federzoni put pressure on Mussolini to expel the extremists who were damaging the reputation of Fascism. Mussolini responded by appointing Federzoni minister of the interior and Alfredo Rocco minister of justice; both men were former Nationalists and had great influence within Italy’s ruling classes. He also dismissed Cesare Rossi, head of the Fascist press office, who was directly linked to Matteotti’s murder, and Emilio de Bono, the Fascist director of public security. The ras and more militant elements in the Fascist movement were furious at these measures.
Mussolini managed to ride out the crisis because the opposition was weak and divided. The opposition made the mistake of walking out of the Chamber (in a move known as the Aventine Secession), which did nothing to undermine Mussolini’s position. Equally important to Mussolini’s survival was the continuing support of the King and of the Vatican. King Victor Emmanuel III preferred to retain Mussolini as prime minister rather than risk seeing a revival of the fortunes of the Left or a revolt by Fascist extremists.
when did mussolini merge the nationalist association with the pnf and why
- He merged the Nationalist Association with the PNF in 1923; this gave Fascism greater respectability as Nationalists like Alfredo Rocco and Luigi Federzoni had influential connections among big landowners and industrialists, the armed forces, civil service and the royal court.
how dod de stefani aid italys economy
- In 1924–25, Mussolini’s finance minister, De Stefani, reassured the business class by pursuing orthodox financial policies, cutting government spending and balancing the budget (keeping government spending in line with revenue). In this, De Stefani was helped by an upturn in the world economy.
how did mussolini reassure big landowner
- He cancelled the Falconi and Visocchi Decrees, which had legalised peasant seizures of land. This reassured the big landowners.
mussolini keeping control of workers
- He banned strikes and ended independent trade unions. Only Fascist unions were permitted in a law of April 1926, which followed on from the Palazzo Vidoni Pact of October 1925 between the Italian Confederation of Industry and the Fascist trade unions.
how did mussolini keep control within the chamber
- He was granted emergency powers for one year by the Chamber.
- He broke the PPI as a political force in 1923. The PPI was very divided between right-wing members, who favoured close ties with Mussolini because they feared the Socialists and wanted to end the rift between Church and state, and more reformist, or left-wing, members, who hated the Fascists who attacked the Catholic unions.
- He sacked the PPI members of his coalition government in April 1923. Pope Pius XI, desperate to avoid confrontation with the Fascists, forced the leader of the PPI, Don Luigi Sturzo, to resign. The PPI split over the Acerbo Law; some right-wing PPI deputies voted for it while most decided to abstain from voting.
- He got the Chamber to pass the Acerbo Law in November 1923. This gave the party with the most votes in an election two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber. Mussolini was anxious to get this measure passed because elections were due in 1924 and he wanted to ensure that the Fascists dominated the Chamber rather than having to rely on a coalition with other parties.
- He won the parliamentary elections in April 1924. Mussolini presented a government list of candidates, including Liberals and some Popolari, to the electorate. Government candidates won 66% of the seats (375 out of 575), with PNF members securing over 50%.
- The Fascists used unprecedented violence and intimidation against opponents in the 1924 elections. Vote-rigging and bribery by the Fascists were widespread, particularly in the South where these methods had traditionally been effective. The Fascists won over 80% of the votes in the South but only 54% in the North, where the working-classes still largely voted for the Socialists.
nasser’s leadership in rise to power
muslim brotherhood mass round up and imprisioning of brotherhood members were carried out and six of the leaders executed
formation of the UAR, 1958-62
- The appearance of genuine union proved deceptive. From the beginning, Syria chafed at not being treated as a true equal; its officials were denied positions of importance in government and Egypt took precedence in decision-making. Syrians began to regret forfeiting their independence by, in effect, subordinating themselves to Nasser and Egypt. The result was that in 1962, Syria unilaterally declared that it was withdrawing from the UAR. There were fears that Nasser would use the Egyptian army to prevent Syrian secession. He seems to have considered such a move, but decided eventually that the sight of Egypt’s forcibly imposing itself on another Arab state would seriously undermine his advocacy of PanArabism. He publicly accepted Syria’s withdrawal and acknowledged that mistakes had been made.
ideology
- Elections local and national 1919 vs 1921
- Changing to gain support
ideology for nasser’s rise to power
nasserism
Nasserism
- Not a specific political philosophy or ideology.
- The philosophy of revolution.
- Pan Arabism
- Egyptian nationalism
- Distate for Zionism but used atni-zionism as a powerful rallying call in Egypt.
- As long as Israel was the main political and very visible sign of Arab subjection, then he could always refer to the need for Egyptians and Arabs to unite in the struggle against the great affront to Egyptian and Arab pride – the existence of the state of Israel.
- Use anti-colonialism to gather support
Nasser as a Pan-Arabist
- Nasser’s outstanding personal success in the Suez Crisis encouraged him in his long-held ambition to become leader of Pan-Arabism. His aim was two-fold:
- to strengthen his position at home and
- to achieve Arab unity under Egypt’s guidance. In pursuit of this policy Nasser travelled widely in the Middle East and became diplomatically involved in the affairs of many of In what ways was Nasser’s adoption of Pan-Arabism an extension of his ambitions as Egyptian leader? The Hungarian Uprising An attempt, in October to November 1956, by the Hungarian communist government to break free of the Soviet Union’s control; it was crushed by invading Soviet forces. British Commonwealth In a process that began in 1931, most of the countries of Britain’s former empire, on becoming independent, joined together freely as an informal association of sovereign states under the patronage of the British Crown. 185 Chapter 6: Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser, 1952–70 the Arab nations. In all this activity, there were three key episodes which helped both to define his policy and explain why it ultimately failed:
● the formation of the United Arab Republic (UAR), 1958–62
● the war in Yemen, 1962–67
● the Six-Day War, 1967.
mussolini use of force
matteotti crisis
nasser use of force
muslim brotherhoood
mass roundup and imprisonment of brotherhood memebers were carried out and six of the leaders executed
legal methods mussolinis consolidation of power
Constitutions
Acerbo law 1924
legal methods nasser’s consolidation of power
The formation of the UAR, 1958–62
- What seemed to be an important step towards the furthering of Nasser’s Pan-Arabism was the formation in 1958 of the United Arab Republic (UAR), based on these terms:
● Egypt and Syria would merge as one nation
● Egypt would form the ‘Southern province’, Syria the ‘Northern province’
● Nasser was recognized as Head of State
● Egypt would control the joint military forces
leadership for mussolini’s consolidation of power
cult of indiviual
corporate state
propaganda
leadership for nasser’s consolidation of power
in 1955, attended many rallies to gain support
had media on his side
bandung conference 1955
- Nasser recovered from the temporary dip in his reputation following the Gaza incursion by figuring prominently at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in April 1955 as representative, not simply of Egypt, but of the wider Arab world. It was at Bandung that he helped develop the non-aligned movement (NAM), whose basic attitude was expressed in the term, ‘positive neutralism’ – the idea that independent countries could stand aside from both the United States and the Soviet bloc. As a result of Bandung, Nasser became associated with major world figures such as Nehru of India and Tito of Yugoslavia, leaders who declined to take sides in the Cold War
October 54 speech: nasser becomes Nasser
- Nasser negotiated withdrawal of the British; very effective negotiator - Gave a big public speech in Alexandria. Started nervous and stilted. Then midway through 8 shots rang out, and he responded with full emotion. “God be with you gamal”, from the crowd. - His famous response: “If Gamal abd al-Nasser should die, I will not die - for all of you are Gamal abd al-Nasser - Egypt’s well-being is linked not to Gamal And al-Nasser but to you and your struggle” - Assassin was from the Brotherhood - Nasser’s fame grew from here. He was beloved for being approachable on the street, and being modest in taste
“the philosophy of the revolution” (1955)
- British ambassador to Egypt: it reflected a “a breadth of vision, humanity and idealism” US ambassador: “selfless and icily intelligent”
One party state
National
mussolini propaganda for consolidation of power
black shirts
uniforms in schools
mussolini on notebook covers
control of the media
mussolini propaganda
Unsurprisingly, given his experience and skill as a journalist, Mussolini saw control of the media as vital. Prefects were given the power to censor newspapers in 1923 and the opposition press was suppressed in 1926. However, the Fascist government did not seek to take over the press and owned only 10% of newspapers. Nonetheless, Mussolini was determined to control what the newspapers wrote and reported. Journalists and editors who stepped out of line could be fined or banned from journalism, but in practice most editors conformed to the guidelines laid down by the government. The Fascist Press Office instructed newspapers about how events should be reported and insisted on the need to avoid reporting bad news such as crime stories.
Initially, Mussolini did not place a great emphasis on the importance of radio, partly because only 40,000 Italians owned a radio in the mid-1920s. However, this changed in the 1930s as government broadcasts increased and ownership of radios went up to 1 million by the late 1930s. Similarly, at first, the Fascist government did not see film as a particularly important medium. In 1924, a government film agency, Istituto Luce, was created to produce newsreels and documentaries. In 1937, the government funded an Italian film studio called Cinecittà. Yet, even then, there was not too great an emphasis on propaganda until the late 1930s.
Mussolini was constantly looking for propaganda opportunities to sell himself and the Fascist movement to the Italian people. Fascism concentrated on conveying an image of action and energy. Fascism’s aim was to create a new type of Italian – more virile, heroic and selfless – and propaganda was one means the regime sought to use to promote that purpose. From 1925, the cult of the Duce was launched. This was aided by the publication of the best-selling biography of Mussolini by his mistress Margherita Sarfatti, titled Dux (1926). As Denis Mack Smith has put it, Mussolini was a ‘stupendous poseur’ and many Italians appeared to like this. Mussolini was presented as a superman who excelled at all sports, worked relentlessly and was loved by the people. The Fascists regularly organised mass parades and developed elaborate rituals, often using classical Roman imagery. Mussolini sought to revive the ancient Roman spirit.
Mussolini’s use of propaganda was never as systematic as in Germany. The Ministry of Popular Culture, popularly known as MinCulPop, was not set up until 1937. Historians now largely agree that, particularly in the late 1920s and mid-1930s, the Fascist regime did enjoy widespread support; this was partly the result of successful policies such as restoring the Italian state’s relations with the Vatican but also because of propaganda. However, the limitations of Fascist propaganda can be seen in the regime’s failure to win popular support for the German alliance promoted by Mussolini from the mid-1930s or the anti-Semitic policy launched in 1938. During this more radical phase of Fascism, support for Mussolini began to ebb away and this process accelerated once Italy joined the Second World War in 1940.
propaganda in nasser’s consolidation of power
Radio
Broadcast across Egypt and the wider Middle East (est. 1934) * Nasser’s speeches became increasingly powerful * Critique imperialism, and opposing leaders * Appealed directly to the people (bully pulpit) – in a nation with low literacy rates and strong oral tradition
Tv
Started as a programme on RC, but soon became a rival station * Voice of the Arabs - “Sawt al-Arab, calling to the Arab nation from the heart of Cairo” (est. 1953) * Directed by Ahmed Said (pan-Arab, antiimperial), under Ministry of National Guidance * Mixed of political and news programming, with politicised and nationalistic songs and dramas
* Egypt has a well-established film industry by 1952, nationalised in 1961 * Nasser push for films focusing on everyman heroes and criticism of the imperial past * Put faith in stars like Adb el Halim Hafiz (beyond Egypt) * al-Haram (The Sin) – 1965, a typical example of Nasser’s favoured theme of class struggle
continued suppression
* Army * Secret police – Mukhabarat – 10,000 * Controlled trade unions * Government controlled media – TV, radio, by 1970 most urban homes - not all non-government newspapers closed down but secret police kept watch * Fedayeen – Egyptian civilian nationalists – supporters of Nasser * No protest - By 1960, 8,000 Islamists and 10,000 communists had been imprisoned along with hundreds of army officers. * Arab Socialist union (ASU) The new name given in 1962 to the National Union, the sole party allowed to function legally in Egypt. * Prison camps – state terror never on scale of China – 6 main camps – brutal – mostly communist and Islamic * Jews – not anti-semitic but anti-Zionist (creation of Israel depriving Arabs of land) – did put 500 in prison following 6 day war in 196
Newspapers * Minister of National Guidance, Mohammed Heikal – editor of al- Ahram * Close contact of Nasser * al-Ahram a key insight for foreign journalists and diplomats
treatment of opposition in mussolini’s consolidation of power
Matteotti crisis
Other parties banned
Trade unions
