move to global war: italian and german expansionism 1870-1933

Question 1

giolitti made pm

Answer 1

1903-1914

Question 2

mussolini joins socalist party

Answer 2

1910

Question 3

red week with widespread unrest

Answer 3

1914

Question 4

first world war begins with italy neutral

Answer 4

1914th august

Question 5

mussolini expelled from socialsit party for his stance on war
Mussolini sets up newspaper Il Popolo d’Italia

Answer 5

novemebr 1914

Question 6

italy is promised major gains by the entente
treaty of london

Answer 6

1915 april

Question 7

italy enters the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary

Answer 7

may 1915

Question 8

italy is defeated in the battle of caporetto

Answer 8

1917 october

Question 9

italy wins the battle of vittorio veneto

Answer 9

1918 october

Question 10

mussolini founds fascist party

Answer 10

1919 march

Question 11

the versailles settlement does not give mussolini any major gains

Answer 11

june 1919

Question 12

italian nationalist d’annunzio seizes the port of fiume

Answer 12

septemeber 1919

Question 13

italian elections were held and the socialist party and catholic party gained the majority of votes but fail to form a gov

Answer 13

november 1919

Question 14

widespread socalist unrest

Answer 14

1919-20

Question 15

widespread fascist violence against opposition groups

Answer 15

1920-22

Question 16

italy bombards corfu

Answer 16

1923 august

Question 17

italy gains the fiume

Answer 17

1924 jan

Question 18

italy signs the locarno treateis

Answer 18

1925 october

Question 19

albania becomes an italian protectoreate

Answer 19

1926

Question 20

mussolini encourages croatian separatists who want to break away from the newly created state of yugoslavia

Answer 20

1927

Question 21

mussolini encourages arab nationalists who challenge the British and french empires

Answer 21

1928

Question 22

mussolini encourages macedonian separatists in yugoslavia

Answer 22

1929

Question 23

when did italy become a unified state

Answer 23

1961

Question 24

once in power, mussolini pursued an italian foreign policy that was influenced by a number of factors

Answer 24

italy’s geographic position and its limited economic resources
the Versailles settlement
nationalist views on the destiny of Italy to become a great power and to have an empire
earlier foreign policy humiliations
the changing international context
fascist ideology

Question 25

long term weaknesses of liberal italy

Answer 25

lack of national identity Iregionalism and political division between north and south)
catholic church (anti clerical policies vs liberal governments)
working class protest

Question 26

working class protest as a long term weakness of liberal italy

Answer 26

middle and upper classes dominated the political system and vote was limited to wealthy elites until 1930 when all men were given the vote. liberal govs had the reputation of corruption and only representing the needs of themiddle and upper classes. led to the founding of the psi, in 1892.

Question 27

politicians repsonded to the growing unrest (due to corrupt liberalism) with force by…

Answer 27

closing trade unions, banning parties like psi

Question 28

when was the nationalist Italian association founded

Answer 28

1910

Question 29

terre irredenta

Answer 29

unreedemed lands

Question 30

italy’s reasons for joining the entente alliance

Answer 30

right wing libreals hoped that if italy joined the entente then they would gain the italisan speaking territories of austo-hungarian empires. signed april 1915.

Question 31

who supported ww1 intervention

Answer 31

nationalists and fututrissts
not th psi but others on the left as they thought it would destroy liberal Italy and and foster revolution

Question 32

who didnt support ww1 intervention

Answer 32

psi, viewing the conflict as imperialist war

Question 33

why was mussolini expelled from the psi

Answer 33

argued for intervention

Question 34

impact of ww1

Answer 34

italy finally achieved victory against austrians at the battle of vittorio veneto. however human cost of 600,000 men dead
increased political division in Italy.
many resented the liberal gov for mismangement of the war, and resented the psi for their anti war stance
workforce mobilized to fight a total war so number of industrial workers grew
increased membership of trade unions an the PSI both increasingly militant by end of war

Question 35

key features of fascism

Answer 35

nationalism
militarism
social darwinism
social unity
authoritarianism

Question 36

why did support for fascism grow in Italy after ww1

Answer 36

political crises following ww1
liberals fared badly in 1919 elections
no parties able to form a coherent coalition gov.
short term gov’s undermined the credibility of the democratic parliamentary system.
pm had not claimed territory Italy had claimed from defeated austro-hungarian empire.
reciefved tyrol, istrian peninsular, port of trieste and dodecanese islands. port in and prtectroeate over albania.
DID NOT RECIEVE dalmatia or colonies

Question 37

waht were the unredeemed klands

Answer 37

dalmatia or colonies

Question 38

what did d’annuzio call ww1

Answer 38

a mutilated victory

Question 39

how did thefascist party benefit from the post war situation

Answer 39

fascism not based on clear doctrine or theories so could appeal to a wide range of groups across the class divide. italians embraced the strict law and order

Question 40

1921 election results

Answer 40

35 to pnf
108 to ppi
138 to psi

Question 41

what did d’annuzio do in sept 1919

Answer 41

led 2000 ex soldiers to occupy fiume by force in protest against the gov decision to hand over the port to Yugoslavia. gov proved too weak to remove d’annuzio until giolitti reutrend as pm. undermined the italian Democratic system

Question 42

how was the post war economy an important factor in the rise to fascism

Answer 42

high inflation
unemployment at 2million in 1919
us restrictions on immigration
fear of communism due to bolshevik rev
2 red years where socialists tried to catalyse a bolshevik style rev
the support of the left mainly transferred to the right
gained support from the wealthy landowners and industrialists
supported by catholic church which gained them a lot ofsupport

Question 43

which gov collapsed in feb 1922

Answer 43

the coalition gov led by firs titalian socialst pm ivanoe bonomi. followed by weak conservative coalition led by luigi facta that was unable to control the increasing violence

Question 44

who called for a general strike in august 1922

Answer 44

socialists and communists

Question 45

how did mussolini secure his position as pm

Answer 45

engaged in negotations with conservative politicians to support his appointment
fasics squads had expelled socialist councils in several towns nad there had been widespread rumours of a fascist march on rome

Question 46

in october 1922, mussolini wouldnt

Answer 46

accept anything but the pm role

Question 47

when did mussolin idecide the time was right to seize power

Answer 47

16th october when we met with leading fasicst in milan.

Question 48

when did fascist squads attempt to seize control of government buildings in north and central italy

Answer 48

27th october

Question 49

aftermath of the 27th october 1922fasict revolt

Answer 49

gov resigned after this but pm was asked to stay. he asked the king to take declare martial law so armyt could crush fasist revolt. king agreed and then changed his mind to side with Mussolini. mussolini then offered position of pm.

Question 50

how did mussolini conslidate his power

Answer 50

at first he had to share power with the political parties. he was a pm but only 4/12 deputies . then made many moves towards dictatorship

Question 51

when did mussolini’s new gov win a vote of confidence for him to vote inemergency powers and reform the administration and tax system

Answer 51

november 1922

Question 52

when did nationalists join the fascist party

Answer 52

feb 1923

Question 53

when was the acerbo lawpassed

Answer 53

july 1923

Question 54

when did fascists (after intimidation and violence) raise their representation in parliament from 7% to 66%

Answer 54

april 1924

Question 55

when did matteotti give a speech codneming fascist violence that resulted in his assassination 11 days later

Answer 55

may 1924

Question 56

when did mussolini take responsibility for fascist violence (after wave fo revulsion for matteotti), leading to many members o f parliament withdrawing in opposition but mussolini had started to identify as il duce

Answer 56

3rd jan 1925

Question 57

whe did the law on powers of head of government give Mussolini significant executive powers

Answer 57

december 1925

Question 58

what were the executive powers given to mussolinin December 1925

Answer 58

political parties and trade unions banned. press now strictly controlled. elected local officials replaced by appointed government officials

Question 59

between nov 1926 and jan 1927

Answer 59

the fascis tparty increased repression and a new secret police was founded: the OVRA. powers of arrest increased, trail without jury permitted and scope of death penalty expanded to include action against the authorities

Question 60

did mussolini create a tolitatarian state

Answer 60

italians had to conform to fasicst expectations and comply with state’s laws. no overt opposition or criticism and this was enforced by the secret police and milita. employees of the state had to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime and the young were mobilised to join the youth movement. cult of personality. HOWEVER still limitations; had to manage king and church.

Question 61

after 1925, mussolini developed a programme of action which included the following aims

Answer 61

increase national pride
consolidate domestic support for the regime
revise the post war settlement of 1919-20
dominate the balkans
dominate the med
build an empire (spazio vitale), expand its territories in Africa
foster spread of fascims to other countries

Question 62

mussolini aimed for the economy to be

Answer 62

self sufficent (autarky)
resources
higher literaacy rate

Question 63

what was the corporate state

Answer 63

a new way of organising the economy, an alternative to capitalism and socialism

Question 64

battle for lira was when

Answer 64

1926

Question 65

battle for grain was when

Answer 65

1925

Question 66

mussolini law

Answer 66

in 1928
set out a plan for land reclamation
an expensive failure

Question 67

battle for grain

Answer 67

led to an increase in grain production and imports fell by 75% but this came at the cost of other corops.

Question 68

battle for lira

Answer 68

value of lira fell from 154 to 90 to the British pound. gov cut wages by 10% in 1927.

Question 69

how did mussolini hope to use foreign policy

Answer 69

to conslidate domestic control and then foreign

Question 70

wha did mussolini do in 1923

Answer 70

invade corfu after an italian official was killed on the greek border with Albania. after withdrawing he demanded 50million lire of compensation

Question 71

when did mussolini withdraw from corfu

Answer 71

LoN condemned it and demanded but only withdrew when britain threatened to use its navy.

Question 72

what did musoslini learn from the corfu incident

Answer 72

he could oly bully smaller sttes and not intimidate bigger ones like britian

Question 73

how didmussolini gain control of fiume

Answer 73

in 1924 he sent a military commander to trule over it. in the pact of rome, the yugoslavs gace in and the port was ceded to Italy.

Question 74

what did mussolini take away from the fiume incident

Answer 74

mussolinip;s success in the Balkans led him to believe he could intimidate the Yugoslav and undermine the french influence there. he tried to gain destablise the country by funding ethnic groups who wanted indepence like the croats.

Question 75

describe mussolini and zog’s relationship

Answer 75

in 1924 an itlaian backed leader called zog took power in labania on yougoslavia’s border. mussolini invested in zog’s regime and helped train the Albanian army. it led to an official treaty of freindshio between the two states in 1926, through which albania became an Italian protecteorate

Question 76

what countries did france back as to form an alliance with the little entente

Answer 76

yugoslavia, romania and czechoslovakia,

Question 77

why was mussolini hostiel to france

Answer 77

• italy had claims over the french territories corsica, nice and sardinia,
• mussolini was jealous of french north africa and he supported opposition movements to french control in tunisia and morocco
• mussolini aimed to replace french influence in the balkans and the territory around the adriatic

Question 78

when did mussolini meeet with leaders from britian, Germany, Belgium and france at locarno in switzerland

Answer 78

october 1925

Question 79

what was agreed at locarno

Answer 79

the seven agreements that resulted aimed to secure the post war settlement and normalise relations with Germany. the agreements confirmed germany’s western borders with france and belgium but left its eastern border open for future negotiation. the rhineland pact was also signed to prevent future conflict between Germany, france and belgium

Question 80

mussolini’s role in the locarno treaties

Answer 80

although mussolini failed to get the italian border with austria included in the locarno treaties he played a key part in the meetings. the locarno treaties ushered in a new period of cooperation and hope for future peace known as the locarno spirit. they culminated in thekellogg briand pact of 1928

Question 81

kellogg briand pact 1928

Answer 81

denoucned the use of war a sa means to resolve disputes. itay one of 60 to sign which had been drawn up by the US sec of state Kellogg and the French foreign minister Briand.

Question 82

what has mussolin ibeen quoted saying about the kellogg briand pact

Answer 82

“so sublime that it should be called transcendental”

Question 83

hwp did mussolini breach the tov

Answer 83

funded right wing groups ingeramny and also secretly trained german pilots in italy

Question 84

what did mussolini support in morocco

Answer 84

independence movements against the french

Question 85

mussolini’s violent methods were exemplified whenhe…

Answer 85

britally crushed a revolt in libya in 1922-28. in 1928 the ‘pacification’ campaign had become a full scale war and was only put down tih the use of masice force and mass executions. in a cynical move, Mussolini also signed a treaty of friendship with Abyssinia in 1928 despite his long ter ambitions conquest there.

Question 86

mussolini’s situation at the end of the 1930s

Answer 86

musolini furstrated at the failure of tradiitoonal diplomacy. had to support the disarmament efforts of the league of nations due to weaknesses of the Italian armed forces . in 1927 he ominously told the Italian parliament that he would expand the Italian air force until it could block out the sun. in the 1930s he became more aggressive with foreign policy as hitler gained more power. he looked for opportunities to demonstrate that Italy was a major power. he argued that the future lay with new virile states like Germany and not old liberal states like Britain and france.

Question 87

when did italy and the soviet union break off formal diplomatic relations

Answer 87

when the bolsheviks seized power in october 1917./

Question 88

how did italy and soviet union relations change after it was clear lenin was there to say

Answer 88

in 1921 italu recognised the new gov in the s.u. when it negotiated two trade agreement with Moscow. mussolini wanted to develop commercial arrangements and in 1924 they formally recognised the s.u. he saw that it could be a useful tool in gaining diplomatic leverage over other powers.

fascist Italy nad bolshecik russsia aremianed on good terms through he 1920s.

Question 89

germant and s.u. relations that intreigued italy

Answer 89

soviets also interested in fosterign better relations with Italy. germany and bolshevik russia had signed the rapallo treaty in 1922 in which they renounced all territorial and financial claims following ww1 and the s.u. wanted to draw Italy into the rapallo alignment. italy was also unhappy with post war settlement

Question 90

Kaiser Wilhelm abdicates;. Takes over as president of the new Weimar Republic.

Answer 90

1918 november

Question 91

Germany signs Armistice to end World War One.

Answer 91

1918 november

Question 92

spartacist uprising

Answer 92

1919 january

Question 93

tov signed by germany

Answer 93

1919 june

Question 94

hitler joins german workers party

Answer 94

1919 september

Question 95

The German Workers Party is renamed the National Socialist German Workers Party, or NSDAP.

Answer 95

1920 feb

Question 96

the kapp putsch

Answer 96

1920 march

Question 97

french troops occupy the ruhr

Answer 97

1923 january

Question 98

germany faces hyperinflation

Answer 98

1923

Question 99

beer hall putsch

Answer 99

november 1923

Question 100

dawes plan implemented

Answer 100

september 1923

Question 101

locarno treaty

Answer 101

october 1925

Question 102

germay joins lon

Answer 102

1926

Question 103

germany signs kellogg briand pact

Answer 103

1928

Question 104

the young plan

Answer 104

1929

Question 105

The Wall Street crash in the USA
. The death of Streeseman

Answer 105

1929 october

Question 106

Nazi party gains 18.3% in the Reichstag elections

Answer 106

1930 september

Question 107

Unemployment reaches 4.9 million.

Answer 107

1931

Question 108

nazi party gains 37.4% of the vote in the Reichstag elections

Answer 108

1932 july

Question 109

Hitler is appointed Chancellor of Germany.

Answer 109

1933 january

Question 110

ww1 for germany

Answer 110

failure of schliffen plan removed idea of short and victorious war
in 1917 victory seemed in sight; in the treaty fo breast itovsk, Germany secured gains from russia. ludendorff launched an offensive on the western front that pushed the allies back to Paris. german hope crushed when allies pushed back.
los tis best troops in 1918 offensive, and an outbreak of Spanish flu also lowered morale.
germany then asked for an armistice before the end of the war to reduce severe terms. wilson demanded kaiser resign and then signed.

Question 111

post ww1 germany

Answer 111

many doemstic problems, strikes, political unrest, mutineu from sailors at kiel, impact of allied blockade causing food shortages so kaiser abdicated nad german socialist gov agreed to the armistice.

Question 112

waht was the stab in the back theory

Answer 112

that the germans never lsot and it was the socialists fauly for agreeing to an armistice when they were about win

Question 113

the tov

Answer 113

1919
drawn up at palace of versailles and was mainly work of; pm of France (clemenceau), pm of Britain (lloyd george), p ww from USA
14pts

Question 114

what did france want to gain from tov

Answer 114

make germany pay adn weaken it

Question 115

what did briatin want to gain from tov

Answer 115

preserve naval supremacy and enlarge empire.

Question 116

What did usa ant to gain from tov

Answer 116

lasting and just set of international relations

Question 117

how did hitler joint he national socialist german workers party

Answer 117

worked for army as intelligence agent sent to investigate german workers party (founded jan 1919) suspected of plotting a left wing rev. in fact it was an extreme nationalsit party that was attempting to win over working class support.hitler joined dexler (leader)’s invitation to join renamed it and gave it the swastika as the new symbol.

Question 118

main aims for hitler initally

Answer 118

pan-germanism. unification for germany with german minorities in other countries

race and living space. idea of aryan race. social Darwinism.

natural enemies and allies
hitler saw russia as natural enemy because f of communis, France because of tov,, britian seen as potential aally because it opposed france’s occupation of the ruhr in 1923. admired their empire.

Question 119

why did support rise for nazis after ww1

Answer 119

primarily, violent repression of left wing uprisings, and a poor economy where hyperinflation meant in 1923 one pre 1914 mark was worth 2500 paper marks. some people had their pensions wiped out

Question 120

why did hitler launch his own bid to take over the government

Answer 120

lots of poltiical unrest, french occupation and economic catastophe.

Question 121

when did hitle become leader of the kampfbund

Answer 121

1923

Question 122

what was the kampfbund

Answer 122

an association of right wing groups created to coordinate tactics against the republic.

Question 123

why was hitler arrested and tried for treason

Answer 123

he tried to takeover the government buildings with 600 SA men(despite no support form the bavarian government, police or army). armed police therefore opened fire and killed 16 stormtroopers.

Question 124

hitler’s arrest impact

Answer 124

turned hitelr into a national figure and gave the nazi party free publicity. hitler claimed he was acting patriotically and although found guilty only received 5 years imprisonment he served less than a year of this after writing mein kampf.

Question 125

what did Hitler decide on after prison

Answer 125

using legal and constitiutional means to take power in germant. the nazi party was relaunched in 1925 with hitelr gaining control over it in 1926. party was reorganised with youth and women groups. modern propaganda techniques used.

Question 126

economic recovery for germany in the 1920s

Answer 126

new rentenmark
dawes plan: froze german reparation payments for 2 years and set up loans for Germany from the USA.
1929: young plan, where the USA agreed to give more loans to Germany.
a much reduced scheme of repayments for reparations est up over the next 50 years.

Question 127

what did stresemann beleive in

Answer 127

pragamatic nationalist
cooperation with britian and france was the best way to achieve these aims.
(Kellogg briand pact 1928, locano treated 1925)

Question 128

waht was the locarno spring

Answer 128

a period of new hope for european cooperation following the locarbo treaties.

Question 129

what was the rapello treaty

Answer 129

16th april 1922
signed by reps of the governments of germany and the s.u. at a world economic conference at genoa in Italy. re-established diplomatic relations and renounced that the financial claims that each country had on the other an pledged future cooperation. secret clauses to the treaty allowed germant to manufacture aeroplanes and ammunition forbidden by the tov.

Question 130

what was german unemployment in 1929 and what did it grow to in 1932

Answer 130

2.8 million to
6 million

Question 131

deflationary policies by bruning

Answer 131

gov expenditure cuts, wage cuts, job losses, food prices fell and small farmers badly affected. banks folded and industrial production dropped dbu over 50%

Question 132

what did bruning’s deflationary policies lead to

Answer 132

polarization in german politics

Question 133

how did hitler take adv of bruning’s deflationary policies leading to polarization in german politics

Answer 133

portrayed the nazi party as the party that would provide food and jobs in the economic crisis. stepped up his attacks on the weimar republic, restatign the myth that germany had been “stabbed in the back by the german criminals” who still dominated the weimar gov. along with other right wing parties, hitler criticised stresemanns policies of friendship and collaboration with the west. believe that these amounted to acceptance of tov.

Question 134

how did hitler take adv of bruning’s deflationary policies leading to polarization in german politics

Answer 134

right wing parties believe that the treaties only benefitted the french and that germany should not join l.o.n. which as responsible for enforcing tov. meanwhile, dawes and young plan were opposed because these accepted that germany should be paying reparations.

Question 135

what factors allowed hitler to become a dictator

Answer 135

when bruning called for unscheduled election sin 1930, nazis had a chance to break into mainstream policies.
hitler’s electoral following impressed army leaders and right wing nationalist politicians who watned to form a strong gov. leading members o the german goc like army leader called for hitler to be chancellor of Germany in 1933 as they wanted him on their side and thought they could control him.
in the hopes of creating a stabel gov, pres hindenburg agreed.
in the pos of chancellor, with only two other nazi partymembers in the cabinet, hitler was able to secure his position as dictator.

Question 136

nazi votes in 1930

Answer 136

increased their seats from 12 to 107
6 million votes

Question 137

hitlers steps to dicator ship

Answer 137

1. after 1933 reichstag burning, decree passed suspending freedom of the press, of speech and of association. leading communists an socialist politicians imprisoned. nazi’s won 43.9% of the vote.
2. hitler passes the enabling act
3. rest of gov nazified. state parliments abolished, trade unions shut down and socialist and communsit party banned. other parties dissolved themselves.
4. in 1934, hitler moved against the SA, which was becoming potential threat and embarrassment. rohm wanted to join the SA and the army together to keep them both under his control. hitler did not want this nad during the night of long knives, some 200 people we killed as hitler used the SS to purge the leaders of the SA and get rid of other enemies.
5. when pres of weimar rep died, hitelr merged the offices of chancellor an president, and in august 1934, all german armed forces took a personal oath of loyalty to hitler.

Question 138

what plot occured on the 27th feb 1933

Answer 138

reichstag building burnt down. communsit found inside and nazis claimed it was a communist plot.

Question 139

what was the enablign act

Answer 139

hitler could pass lawas withut the reichstags consent. this was achieved by preventing the communists from taking their seats and consequently winnign 2/3 of the vote.

Question 140

end id germany becoma one party state

Answer 140

july 1933

Question 141

when did prs of weimar rep hindenburg die

Answer 141

1934

Question 142

when eas the first conc camp set up in Germany to deal with enemies

Answer 142

1933:
for jews, roma, gay people, jehovah’s witnesses.
meanwhile, nuremburg laws of 1935 said that aryan germans were forbidden from having any relationship with jews. only those of aryan blood could become german citizens with full political rights.

Question 143

when was zweites buch written

Answer 143

1928

Question 144

did hitelr stick to his ideas

Answer 144

he refers to what he says in mein kampf and zweites buch a lot, and in speeches between 1928 and 1933. however did he have an idea on how to achieve them?

AJP taykor: no, actions determined by economic pressures and demands from within the nazi party

hildebrand: yes he had a definte programme of expansions dn conquest with clear phases.
1. ending of tov, and formation of alliance with Britain and Italy.
2. second would be the defeat of France.
3. third and final would be the conquest of russia.

Question 145

when is the colony of lubya subdued

Answer 145

after a 13 year campaign in 1932

Question 146

when does hitler beocme chancellor of germany

Answer 146

1933 january

Question 147

when does mussolini propose the four power pact

Answer 147

july 1933

Question 148

when does italy send troops to its border with Austria to prevent hitlers attempts at anschluss

Answer 148

july 1934

Question 149

when does mussolini meet hitler in vencie

Answer 149

1934 june

Question 150

when is the stresa conference

Answer 150

1935 april

Question 151

when does italy invade abyssinia

Answer 151

october 1935

Question 152

when does italy conquer abysinnia

Answer 152

1936 may

Question 153

when oes mussolinini iniate talks of an axis agreement with hitler

Answer 153

october 1936

Question 154

when does itlay intervene in the spanish civil war and hitler sends assistance to franco

Answer 154

july 1936

Question 155

when does italy join germany in the axis agreement

Answer 155

1936 october

Question 156

when is an unofficial agreement made between tialy nad britian accepting the status quo in the med

Answer 156

1937

Question 157

when i s mussolini impressed by hitler on a visit to germany

Answer 157

september 1937

Question 158

when does italy join the anti comintern pact with Germany an japan, an anti soviet alliance

Answer 158

november 1937

Question 159

when does italy withdraw from the league of nations

Answer 159

december 1937

Question 160

when does britian recognise itlaian abyssinia

Answer 160

april 1938

Question 161

when does hitler viist mussolini and anti semietic laws pass in italy

Answer 161

may 1938

Question 162

when is the munich conference

Answer 162

september 1938

Question 163

when does mussolini announce his long term programme

Answer 163

1939 february

Question 164

when does italy invade albania

Answer 164

april 1939

Question 165

when do italy and germany sign the pact of steel military alliance

Answer 165

may 1939

Question 166

when does italy declare itself a non belligerent when germany incades poland

Answer 166

1st september 1939

Question 167

when do italyt incade egypt and greece

Answer 167

sept to oct 1940

Question 168

when does mussolini declare war on britian and frane

Answer 168

1940 june

Question 169

when does italy declare war on the soviet union

Answer 169

1941 june

Question 170

when does italy declare war on the usa

Answer 170

December 1941

Question 171

what did mussolinis ay about fighting

Answer 171

the character of the italian people must be module dby fighting

Question 172

facism and italian policy aligned more in the mid 1930s:

Answer 172

glorification fo war for its own sake, pursuit of imperial expansion and a move away from diplomacy and cooperation

Question 173

how was italy imapcted by the great depresssion

Answer 173

overvaluing the lira
investment from usa withdrawn
Italian farmers were badly affected from the collapse in grain prices
industry declined
unemployment at 2 million
bank of Italy on brink of collapse

Question 174

how did the italian gov respond to the great depresson

Answer 174

more internention and bailouts for industrialists.
Istitutio Mobiliare Italiano in 1931 gave financial support to the banks and industries.
allocation of raw materials brought under government control and direct control of major industries increased.
istitutuo per la ricostruzione industrial set up in 1933 and took over shares of companies nad banks. as a result, Italy developed the largest public sector in Europe
wages that had already fallen before the depression were cut further

Question 175

by the end of 1930s, the gov controlled

Answer 175

20% of the capital of key companies.

Question 176

what did the great depression mean for mussolini

Answer 176

he managed to rpevent social nad political upheaval and retained power but now he needed to distract the Italian public from italys internal economic problems by fostering the revolutionary spirit that he and fascim espoused. foreign policy would now need to be more dynamic and inspirational.

Question 177

wars led to an annual budget deficit of ?? by 1939

Answer 177

28 billion lire

Question 178

who was foreign minister in 1929

Answer 178

dino grandi

Question 179

why did dino grandi get moved to British ambassafor

Answer 179

he wanted to move away from anglophile policies and demonstrate Italian strength, and ultimately ready the armed forces for the coming war. he believed italy should not trust ht league of nations.

Question 180

who directed foreign polciy in 1936

Answer 180

his son in law ciano. initally uspported closer links with Germany but then became disillusioned and argued against the pact of steel, signed in may 1939. lost facour so ultimately supported war

Question 181

what did the four power pact set out

Answer 181

smaller nations should have less say ing great power relations, unlike their role in the LON.

Question 182

who signed the foru pwoer pact

Answer 182

britian, france, germany and italy.

Question 183

mussolinis actions were seen as significant, had promoted an independent austria since the end of ww1 so Mussolini opposed anschluss…

Answer 183

when naxi supporters murdered the chancellor mussolini immediately mobilized his troops to the border to deter any attempt by hitter to achieve anschluss

Question 184

purpose of the stresa front

Answer 184

to prevent any future changes to the European settlement. they were concerned about hitlers rearmamemnt and violation of the treaty of Versailles. signed the final declaration the stresa conference in April 1935

Question 185

what made musoslin ibeleive the stresa agreeemtn was over

Answer 185

when britain broke the anglo german naval agreement in june 1935

Question 186

doemstic infkuecnes on italian foreign polcity in 1935-39

Answer 186

lack of support from poltiica lelites, includign the king, for a shift in Italian foreign policy that had traditionally supported britian. these groups were generally hostile to the germans. the economic situation had also influenced foreign policy. Italian industrua nd agriculture had not fulfilled mussolinis foal of autarky and the economy would not be able to sustain a general war. the limited war in Abyssinia and the intervention in spain was a drain on resources.

Question 187

page

Answer 187

137

Question 188

why did mussolini invade abyssinia

Answer 188

consolidate il duce
rally support behind the regime
Italian nationalsit ambitions to build an emprie and to become a great imperial power like britain and France.
wanted a roman empire
glorification of war
would give Mussolini an easy defeat as abysinia were not modernised
needed to distract from Italian economic problems

Question 189

invasion of abysinnia

Answer 189

Italy planned to annex Abyssinia, despite previously signing a treaty of friendship and supporting its entry into the League of Nations. Tensions escalated after a clash at the Wal Wal oasis in 1934, and Mussolini ordered his forces to conquer Abyssinia. Italy launched a full-scale invasion in October 1935, which resulted in the defeat of the Abyssinian army and the annexation of Abyssinia in May 1936. The League of Nations condemned Italy as the aggressor and imposed limited sanctions. Britain and France attempted to offer Italy half of Abyssinia to end the conflict, but public pressure forced them to withdraw the offer. The war resulted in a surge in nationalist sentiment in Italy, even receiving support from the Italian Queen Mother.

Question 190

resutls of the abyssinian war for italy

Answer 190

war had been won quite quickly and cost only 1000 Italian casualties. mussolini had demonstrated military might and he had expanded the empire. peak of his foreign policy success.

Question 191

what did gentile say abiut a new italy

Answer 191

mussolini has not just founded an empire in ethiopoa. he has made something more. he has created a new italy.

Question 192

in october 1936k the lira was devalued by

Answer 192

40%

Question 193

results of the italo abyssinain war on collective security

Answer 193

exposed weakness of lon
caused italy to move away from good relations with britaina nd france, and closer to Germany.
mussolini told the german ambassador in jan 1936 that he had no objections to austriabecoming a german satellite.

Question 194

what did mussolini agree to in feb 1936 that mean the would no longer uphold locarno obligations

Answer 194

german rearmament of the rhineland

Question 195

what does steiner show as another reason for mussolinis intervention in the Spanish civil war

Answer 195

Zara Steiner highlights another reason:
Mussolini saw in the Spanish War an opportunity to fashion the “new Italy” and “the new Italian”. “There is only one way to create a warlike people”. the Duce claimed, “to have ever greater masses who have waged war and ever greater masses who want to go to war”. - Steiner, 2011

Question 196

italy involvemtn in the spanish civil war

Answer 196

When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, Mussolini was quick to respond to requests for assistance from General Franco’s Nationalist forces. Italy sent more aid to the Nationalists than any other country, including weapons, ammunition, and troops. Over the course of the war, Italy provided around 75,000 troops, along with tanks and aircraft.

Question 197

what did mussolini hope to gain from the Spanish civil ar

Answer 197

Mussolini’s primary goal was to prevent the spread of communism in Spain and to prevent the establishment of a left-wing government at the mouth of the Mediterranean. He also hoped to gain naval bases in the Balearic Islands and weaken France, which had close ties with the left-wing Popular Front government that Franco was seeking to overthrow.

Question 198

why did mussolini not gain waht he wanted from the Spanish civil war

Answer 198

However, unlike in the Abyssinian campaign, Mussolini lacked a clear plan for the Spanish intervention. He also did not have the same level of popular support, as many Italians were opposed to the war and did not see it as directly benefiting their country.

Question 199

effects of spanish civil war for mussolini

Answer 199

The war lasted much longer than Mussolini had anticipated, and Italy’s involvement proved to be a costly and draining experience. The conflict drained Italy’s military and economic resources and caused tension with other European powers, particularly France and Britain. Ultimately, the Nationalists emerged victorious in 1939, but the intervention did not bring about the desired strategic gains for Italy.

Question 200

results of intervention in the spanish civilw ar

Answer 200

high economic cost: lira devalued and lsot half its foreign currency reserves. total cost of war 14 billion and led to Italy increasing trade with Germany
1/3 of italys arms stocks consumed by the war. although Italy had helped secure a right wing regime in eurpe, and was on the winning side, Italy’smilitary weakness had been exposed.

italian submarine attacks on supply ships led to increased tension between Italy and France and Britain.

general franco maintainedhis independence and spain did not become an italian satellite state.

italy drew closer to germany.

Question 201

the end of italian participation in collective srcurity

Answer 201

In November 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Japan, forming the group that would become the Axis Powers. The pact was directed against the Communist International and stated that the signatories would consult on measures to “safeguard their common interests” in the event of a Soviet attack. Italy’s new relationship with Germany was most apparent regarding Austria. Mussolini had protected Austrian independence since WWI, but in 1938, he accepted Anschluss when Hitler invaded Austria. This represented a major shift in the Italian position on Austria, which was not popular domestically. In December 1937, Italy left the League of Nations.

Question 202

mussolini in the sudetenland crisis

Answer 202

During the Sudetenland crisis in September 1938, Mussolini positioned himself as a mediator and played a key role in the Munich Agreement. However, it was evident that he was subservient to Hitler and had simply put forward Hitler’s own plan for the Sudetenland. Mussolini used the Munich Agreement to demonstrate the weakness of Britain and France and subsequently instructed the Italian parliament to demand the annexation of Corsica, Nice, and Tunis from France in November 1938, believing that he could win a war against France with German support.

Question 203

italy’s invasion of albania

Answer 203

In April 1939, Italy invaded Albania, following Hitler’s success in the invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia the previous month. Mussolini wanted to assert Italian strength, emulate Hitler’s expansion, intimidate Yugoslavia, and pursue his ambition of dominating the Adriatic. Albania’s King Zog attempted to resist the occupation, but Italy had a force of 100,000 men and 600 aircraft, while Albania had only 15,000 poorly equipped troops trained by the Italians. By the afternoon of the first day of fighting, all ports were in Italian hands, and King Zog and his family fled to Greece. Italy set up a Fascist government in Albania, and Mussolini later used Albania as a base to launch an invasion of Greece. The Albanian parliament deposed King Zog in absentia and voted to unite with Italy in “personal union”. Albania withdrew from the League of Nations on 15 April 1939. The Italians then set up a Fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci. The Albanian foreign office was merged with the Italian foreign ministry, and the Albanian army was put under Italian command.

Question 204

what was italy’s numbers of force vs albania’s

Answer 204

Italy had a force of 100,000 men and 600 aircraft, while Albania had only 15,000 poorly equipped troops trained by the Italians.

Question 205

when was the pact of steel signed

Answer 205

between italy and germany on 22 may 1939`

Question 206

what did the pact of steel consist of

Answer 206

The Pact comprised two sections:
the rst was a declaration of trust and cooperation between the two
nations; the second, a secret protocol, fostered a union of military and
economic policies.

Question 207

why was jpana not in the pact of steel

Answer 207

The original intention had been to include Japan in
the Pact but Japan had wanted the focus to be anti-Soviet, whereas Italy
and Germany wanted the agreement aimed at Britain and France. (See
pages 181–182 for more discussion of the Pact of Steel.)

Question 208

why was italy a non belligerent in 1939

Answer 208

When Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, he unleashed a general European War. During negotiations over the Pact of Steel,
Mussolini had suggested that Italy would not be ready for a general war until 1943. Thus, when Hitler ignited war over Poland, Mussolini declared Italy a non-belligerent.

Question 209

why do some historians think that italy had sealed its fate from 1936

Answer 209

by invading albainia, they matched germanys dynamism, and strengthened his view that war strengthened a nation.

Question 210

why did italy then join the war in june 1940

Answer 210

● Not to join the war was something of an embarrassment for the
Fascist leader; it was contrary to his Fascist doctrine and at odds with
his portrayal of condent and decisive leadership as Il Duce
● Mussolini did not want Italy to become a lesser rank power by
staying neutral; he did not want to be “another Switzerland”. In
April 1940, he said: “To make a people great [the country] must be sent into
battle”.
● The war could give Mussolini the opportunity to radicalize the
regime and to remove the inuence of conservatives and the Church.
● If Italy remained neutral and Germany won the war, Europe would
be dominated by a Germany that would be hostile towards Italy
because it had remained neutral.
● The war could bring territorial gains and perhaps control over the
Mediterranean.
motives were primarily economic, however, Germany had been a principal
buyer of Italy’s food and textiles, and by August 1939 it owed Italy US $40
million. Italy received German coal in return and became dependent on it.
This German coal – two thirds of the Italian supply – had to be delivered by
sea. In March 1940, Britain blockaded all German coal ports.

Question 211

comapre left wing and right wing perspectives on mussolini’s foreign policy and expansionsit aims

Answer 211

In general, “left-wing” historians in Italy assert that
Mussolini had an overtly aggressive foreign policy and
expansionist aims. The “right-wing” historians, such as
Renzo De Felice (Mussolini’s Italian biographer), argue
that Italy did not have large-scale expansionist plans. He argues that, from the 1920s up to at least
1935, Mussolini wanted to get France’s agreement to
establish Italy as a great power with an expanded empire
in North Africa.To this end, he was advised to pursue
the “policy of the pendulum” or, in other words, to be the
decisive weight in European relations.

Question 212

AJP Taylor views on hitler and musoslinis foreign polcicy

Answer 212

Taylor suggests that Mussolini had expansionist goals,
but that there was a lot of conict between the foreign
policies of Hitler and Mussolini. He argues, however, that
Mussolini thought Hitler would agree to leave Austria
independent and that Italy could then play France and
Germany o against each other while gaining concessions
from both.The problem was that Hitler intended to achieve
Anschluss

Question 213

italian offensives at the start of the war

Answer 213

Mussolini expanded the war in Europe in the Mediterranean and
into North Africa. Italian forces invaded Egypt from the Italian colony
of Libya, whilst another Italian force invaded Greece from Albania.
However, both of these Italian offensives failed due to the British
response. Mussolini’s failures meant Hitler’s forces were drawn into
both the Balkans and North Africa. German forces took Yugoslavia
and Greece in April 1941, and forced an evacuation of British forces.
Hitler’s forces, under General Rommel, had pushed the British back
and advanced as far as El Alamein in Egypt by June 1942.

Question 214

mussolini’s foreign policy aims

Answer 214

increase national pride
consolidate domestic support for his regime
revise the settlement of 1991-20
dominate the balkans
dominate the meditteranean
build an empire, livign space, expand territories in africa
foster the spread of fascism

Question 215

hitler becomes german chancellor

Answer 215

1933 january

Question 216

hitler introduces a programme of rearmament

Answer 216

februrary 1933`

Question 217

Hitler leaves the Disarmament Conference
and announces the intention to withdraw
Germany from the League of Nations

Answer 217

october 1933

Question 218

germany signs non aggression pct with poland

Answer 218

1934 january

Question 219

saar plebiscite

Answer 219

1935 january

Question 220

stresa agreement

Answer 220

march 1935

Question 221

anglo german naval treaty and
italian invasion of abysinnia

Answer 221

june 1935

Question 222

germany remilitarises the rhineladn

Answer 222

1936 march

Question 223

hitler sends military support to franco’s nationalists in spain

Answer 223

july 1936

Question 224

hiterl’s four year plan is drafted

Answer 224

august 1936

Question 225

anti comintern pacti s made with japan
rome berlin axis

Answer 225

november 1936

Question 226

hossbach memorandum

Answer 226

1937

Question 227

international situation in britain after 1933

Answer 227

Britain was pre-occupied with economic crisis and events in the Far East.
Worried about Japanese expansion, the safety of the British Empire was a top priority.
Many British politicians considered the Treaty of Versailles unfair and supported some redress of “legitimate grievances.”
Right-wing politicians feared communist dictator Stalin and sympathized with Hitler.
They saw Hitler as a buffer to the spread of communism from the East.

Question 228

international situation in france after 1933

Answer 228

France was very concerned about the potential threat posed by Germany
However, France was too weak to act on its own, especially after its 1923 intervention in the Ruhr failed
France was politically divided, with a series of weak governments and major economic problems
France lacked support from the USA or Britain in preserving the Versailles settlement
To defend itself, France built a line of fortresses along the Maginot Line between 1929 and 1938
France developed alliances with countries on Germany’s eastern borders, including Poland and “The Little Entente” countries such as Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia.

Question 229

international situation in france after 1933

Answer 229

France was very concerned about the potential threat posed by Germany
However, France was too weak to act on its own, especially after its 1923 intervention in the Ruhr failed
France was politically divided, with a series of weak governments and major economic problems
France lacked support from the USA or Britain in preserving the Versailles settlement
To defend itself, France built a line of fortresses along the Maginot Line between 1929 and 1938
France developed alliances with countries on Germany’s eastern borders, including Poland and “The Little Entente” countries such as Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia.

Question 230

what was the little entente

Answer 230

This was a series of
treaties between Romania,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia,
which were concluded from
1920 to 1921, and aimed to
prevent Austria and Hungary
from regaining territory lost
after the First World War.

Question 231

international situation in the usa after 1933

Answer 231

economic depression meant usa was unlikely to change its isolationaist stance

Question 232

factors that worked in hitler’s favour

Answer 232

● The international economic situation was encouraging national
insularity rather than collective security.
● The memories of the First World War were still acute, and the horror
of this war made many determined to take any measures necessary
to prevent another war.
● The need to avoid another war was reinforced by the military
weakness of Britain and France at this time.
● Britain and France were unable to agree on a common policy for
dealing with Hitler.
● The League of Nation’s perceived failure to deal effectively
with Japanese expansion in Manchuria was a blow to both the
Washington System and to the League itself.
● The revision of the Treaty of Versailles had already begun; Britain
and France evacuated the Rhineland in 1929–30 and German
reparation payments were effectively cancelled at the Lausanne
Conference of 1932.

Question 233

waht does steiner say abut hitler post 1933

Answer 233

even allowing for the breakdown of the international regime, Hitler moved
with a speed and ultimate purpose that clearly distinguished him from his
predecessors — Steiner, 2011: 95

Question 234

why and how was hitler initally careful when pursuing his aims

Answer 234

Hitler had to be cautious in pursuing his aims due to fear of an international backlash.
He publicly claimed to desire peace and worked to defuse opposition.
Over five years, Hitler undermined collective security by withdrawing Germany from multilateral commitments.
He also isolated France by undermining existing alliances and negotiated alliances with Britain and Italy.
Hitler effectively challenged the Treaty of Versailles, increasing the prestige and power of his dictatorship and Germany within Europe.

Question 235

challenges to disarmament for germany

Answer 235

Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations called for national armaments to be reduced to the lowest point consistent with national safety.
An international conference for disarmament was not organized until 1932.
When the Disarmament Conference finally convened in 1933, there was little consensus on how disarmament could be achieved.
France was unwilling to disarm due to the new threat of Nazism on its borders.
Britain and France did not agree on how Germany should be treated, with Britain prepared to make concessions to Germany.
Previous German governments had requested parity of armaments, but France refused at the Disarmament Conference in 1933.
Hitler pulled out of the Conference and the League of Nations, claiming they were part of a French conspiracy to keep Germany weak and incapable of self-defense.
Hitler’s withdrawal gave him the freedom to launch an assault on the rest of the Treaty of Versailles.

Question 236

when did poland enter in tho the non aggression pact with germany

Answer 236

Poland, on Germany’s eastern border, was
particularly vulnerable and, alarmed at the West’s failure to stop
Germany rearming, entered into a 10-year Non-Aggression Pact with
the German government in January, 1934.

Question 237

benefits of the non aggression pact with poland for germany

Answer 237

For the moment, however, this pact suited Hitler. He was unable
to take any action against Poland at this stage and, by signing the pact,
he was securing his eastern frontier. It also weakened France’s security
system in Eastern Europe. France had signed an alliance with Poland in
1921 and had hoped that this would keep pressure on Germany’s eastern
borders. Germany had now broken out of the diplomatic encirclement
that the French had attempted to impose on it. The pact also ended any
chance of rapprochement between Czechoslovakia and Poland, thus
further undermining the collective security system. Moreover, as this was
an unpopular move in Germany, the Non-Aggression Pact looked to the
international community like an act of statesmanship; it could be used to
convince Britain and others that Germany was a peaceful nation.

Question 238

what showed hitler had no intention of following the non aggression pact

Answer 238

Hitler
preferred bilateral agreements to collective security agreements, as
these could more easily be broken. He declared privately that “All our
agreements with Poland have a temporary significance”.

Question 239

changind diplomatic relations between hitler adn mussolini

Answer 239

In June 1934, Hitler failed to persuade Mussolini to support his position on Austria’s unification as Mussolini wanted to keep Austria as a buffer state. Hitler supported the Austrian Nazi Party, which organized a campaign of intimidation and terrorism, culminating in the assassination of the Austrian Chancellor. Mussolini mobilized 100,000 troops to the Brenner pass in July 1934, causing Hitler to back down. Hitler was forced to play a waiting game on unification with Austria to avoid alienating Mussolini.

Question 240

saar plesbiscite

Answer 240

In 1935, the Saar territory held a plebiscite in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, giving the small coal-rich area the opportunity to return to Germany after being under French control since 1919. The result of the plebiscite was an overwhelming agreement (90.9% of the vote) in favor of returning to Germany, which was seen as a triumph for Hitler and an opportunity for Nazi propaganda to reinforce the growing power and strength of Germany and the popularity of the Nazi regime.

Question 241

by 1935, the german army had increased from

Answer 241

7 to21 divisions

Question 242

when was conscription introduced in germany

Answer 242

1935

Question 243

what was revelaed in march 1935 by goring

Answer 243

In March 1935, Hermann Göring, one of Hitler’s
ministers, revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe, which by this time
had around 2,500 planes. Hitler justied this level of rearmament on the
grounds that Britain and France had failed to disarm and that Germany
needed to be able to protect itself against the growing Soviet Army.

Question 244

germany;s attack on the rhineland

Answer 244

In 1936, Hitler ordered the remilitarization of the Rhineland, an area that had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. This move allowed him to build fortifications to prevent an attack from France and to distract attention from economic problems in Germany. Mussolini’s break with Britain and France over the Abyssinian crisis meant he did not oppose Hitler’s takeover of the Rhineland. Hitler claimed the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty threatened Germany and violated the spirit of the Locarno Pact. This action reinforced the growing power and strength of Germany and Nazi propaganda.

Question 245

what was hitler’s gamble withthe rhineland

Answer 245

Both Hitler’s generals and the German Foreign Ofce were hesitant
about marching into the Rhineland, viewing it as a dangerous action
likely to provoke a response from Britain and France. However, Hitler
decided to take a gamble, hoping that the diplomatic disarray caused by
the Abyssinian crisis would prevent Britain and France from taking any
effective action. However, he later said,
the 48 hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-wracking
of my life. If the French had marched into the Rhineland, we would have had
to withdraw with our tails between our legs.
German troops moved into the Rhineland on 7 March 1936. In fact,
this was not a surprise to the British and the French, who had received
intelligence warnings that this was about to happen. However, no
action was taken by either the British or the French to stop the
remilitarization, despite the fact that the Germans invaded with a
relatively weak military force.

Question 246

what was hitlers’s offer as he invaded the rhineland

Answer 246

The successful invasion was accompanied by a peace offer, which
was again intended to make Hitler look as though he was a man of
peace and to divert the attention of Britain and France away from his
challenge to the post-war settlement. The offer included demilitarizing
the Rhineland, providing Britain and France created similar zones
on their sides of the frontier as well. He also suggested that he was
interested in negotiating new security pacts with his neighbours and
returning to the League of Nations.

Question 247

how were mussolin ian dhitler pusehd together in the spanish civilw ar

Answer 247

Both sides appealed to the international community for help in this
conict. General Franco led the Nationalists and he asked for help from
Germany and Italy, while the Republican government hoped to get
support from Britain, France and the Soviet Union.

Question 248

germanys role int he spanish civilw ar

Answer 248

t played a key role in transporting
Franco’s troops from Morocco to Spain at the start of the conict, and
German bombers of the Condor Legion caused havoc by attacking civilian
centres, most notoriously Guernica in April 1937. German submarines
also attacked government ships in the Mediterranean. Nevertheless, in
contrast to Mussolini (see page 141), Hitler placed limits on the extent of
German involvement.

Question 249

why did hitelr intervene in the spanish civil war

Answer 249

● He wanted a friendly government in Spain that would supply
Spanish mineral resources and also provide military bases for
German submarines.
● He would be able to test out his air force and see the effects of air
attacks on civilian populations.
● He was able to pose as the defender of European civilization against
the Communist threat.
● A pro-Fascist government in Spain would further undermine
French security.

Question 250

what were the results of the spanish civil war for htierl’s position in europe

Answer 250

● The war dragged on for three years, polarizing opinion in Europe.
● It reinforced suspicions between Britain and France on the one hand
and the Soviet Union on the other, thereby preventing a strong antiFascist alliance.
● It distracted the West, and Britain’s failure to take any strong action
(see page 217) led Hitler to believe that he would not face further
opposition to expansion in Eastern Europe.

Question 251

Changing diplomatic alignments:The Rome–Berlin Axis
and the Anti-Comintern Pact

Answer 251

The Spanish Civil War improved diplomatic relations between Hitler and Mussolini, culminating in the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis in October 1936. This was followed by the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in November of the same year, which indicated the beginning of the openly aggressive phase of Hitler’s foreign policy. These agreements demonstrated that Germany was no longer isolated but an important player on the world stage. Hitler signed an agreement with Chancellor Schuschnigg of Austria, whereby Schuschnigg promised to pursue a policy “based on the principle that Austria acknowledges herself to be a German state” in return for a German commitment to non-intervention.

Question 252

probelsm with the four year plan

Answer 252

By 1936, rearmament was not progressing fast enough for Hitler. Indeed,
the consumer economy was starting to struggle: there were shortages of
butter and meat, as well as shortages of vital imports of raw materials
and of foreign exchange. The economics minister, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht,
favoured spending less on armaments in order to enable more exports to
be produced, thus encouraging foreign trade.

Question 253

hitelr soslution to the problems with the four year plan

Answer 253

However, Hitler believed that Germany’s economic problems could only be
solved by the acquisition of more land and living space. He decided to go all
out for autarky, bringing the economy more closely under party control, in
order to prepare for war. This was to be done via a Four Year Plan, which
Hitler introduced in September 1936 under the leadership of Göring.
Believing that this would make the pace of rearmament too fast and that
it would cause an economic crisis, Schacht resigned. However, there is
no doubt that Hitler was now in a strong position.

Question 254

what does williamson say biut the hossbach memorandum

Answer 254

The conference marks the point at which the expansion of the Third Reich
ceased to be latent and became explicit. — Wiliamson, 1995

Question 255

waht does darby say relating to the firing and resignatios of 16 high ranking generals, the ransfer of 44 others, and removal of 3 military leaders

Answer 255

“Following the Reichstag Fire and the Rohm crisis
[Night of the Long Knives], the Blömberg-Fritsch affair was the third great
milestone on the way to Führer absolutist power” (quoted in Darby, 2007).

Question 256

anschluss declared with austrai after german troops march into austria

Answer 256

1938 march

Question 257

sudeten criis

Answer 257

1938 september

Question 258

Germany occupies the rest of
Czechoslovakia
Lithuania gives up the port of Memel to
Germany

Answer 258

1939 march

Question 259

anglo french gurantee of poland

Answer 259

31srt march 1939

Question 260

conscription intorudced in britian

Answer 260

27 april 1939

Question 261

pact of steel

Answer 261

may 1939

Question 262

anglo french mission to moscow

Answer 262

12th august 1939

Question 263

nazi-soivet pact

Answer 263

24th august 1939

Question 264

anglo polish treaty

Answer 264

25th august 1939

Question 265

germany invades poland

Answer 265

1st spetember 1939

Question 266

britian and fracne cdeclare war on germany

Answer 266

3rd september 1939

Question 267

In July
1936, an Austro–German agreement had been signed, which agreed the
following:

Answer 267

● Germany reafrmed its recognition of Austria’s independence.
● Both powers agreed not to interfere in each other’s internal affairs.
● Austria would conduct a foreign policy consistent with it being a
“German state”.
In addition, secret clauses gave prominent Austrian Nazis, such as Arthur
Seyss-Inquart, a role in the government.

Question 268

what did hitelr force on the chancellor of austria

Answer 268

After being submitted to two hours of abuse, Schuschnigg was forced to
agree to a list of demands that included releasing all imprisoned pro-Nazi
agitators, lifting the ban against the Nazi Party and appointing SeyssInquart as interior minister. Pro-Nazis were also to be made the ministers
of war and of nance, and the economic systems of the two countries
were to be assimilated. These demands would effectively end Austrian
independence; Schuschnigg was told that if he did not agree, Hitler
would march into Austria.

Question 269

waht did the chancellor of austria do after hitler made him agree to a list of demands adn what happened

Answer 269

Schuschnigg attempted a desperate last action: he announced a plebiscite
for 13 March 1938, in which Austrians were to vote on whether or
not they wanted a “free and German, independent and social, Christian and
united Austria”. Austrians could only answer “yes” or “no”; given the
wording, along with the fact that Schuschnigg’s own political party
was in charge of the plebiscite, there was a good chance that a Yes vote
could be secured. This would then give him a chance to break free of his
agreement with Hitler.
Hitler, therefore, decided to act before this could happen. Mussolini
gave his assurances that he would not object to Anschluss and Hitler
mobilized his army. When Schuschnigg found that no help was coming
from Italy, Britain or France, he resigned. Hitler marched into Austria
on 12 March 1938.

Question 270

describe anschluss

Answer 270

Hitler, therefore, decided to act before this plebisicte could happen. Mussolini
gave his assurances that he would not object to Anschluss and Hitler
mobilized his army. When Schuschnigg found that no help was coming
from Italy, Britain or France, he resigned. Hitler marched into Austria
on 12 March 1938.

On 13 March, apparently in a spur of the
moment decision following an emotional visit
to his home town of Linz, Hitler announced
the incorporation of Austria into the Reich.
This was subsequently conrmed by 99% of
the population in a plebiscite on 10 April.

Question 271

why did hitler turn his attention to chzecholsolvakia fter annexing austria

Answer 271

● Hitler considered
Slavs to be
untermenschen
(racially and socially
inferior).
● Many Czechs had
resisted Austrian
rule in the old
Austro–Hungarian
Empire and had
fought for Russia
during the First
World War,
rather than for
Austria.
● Czechoslovakia was the only successful independent state created
by the Versailles Settlement; it consisted of many different peoples
and had therefore proved that ethnically diverse people could live
together.
● One of the ethnic groups in the new Czechoslovakia was German.
These Germans had formally lived in the Austro–Hungarian Empire
and now lived in the area known as the Sudetenland, which
bordered Germany (see its location on the map above).
● Czechoslovakia was an enthusiastic supporter of the League of Nations.
● Czechoslovakia was allied to France and Russia.

Question 272

sudeten germans

Answer 272

The Sudetenland, a mountainous and resource-rich area given to Czechoslovakia for prosperity and frontier strength, was home to 3.5 million Sudeten Germans who resented their position in Czechoslovakia and saw themselves as victims of discrimination. Konrad Heinlein led the Sudeten German Party, which was funded by Nazi Germany and demanded self-government and special rights. Hitler encouraged Heinlein’s continual agitation and subversion. Initially, Hitler was reluctant to use force against Czechoslovakia, as many of his generals warned that Germany was not ready for war.

Question 273

germanys place int he wrold in late 1930s

Answer 273

In 1936, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, which had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. This move allowed him to build fortifications to prevent a French attack and distract from Germany’s economic problems. Hitler used the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty as an excuse for his actions. The improved relations between Hitler and Mussolini, resulting from the Spanish Civil War, culminated in the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936 and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in 1937. These agreements demonstrated Germany’s importance on the world stage.

Question 274

may crisi 1938

Answer 274

Hitler changed his mind on taking action against Czechoslovakia due to the May Crisis.
Rumors circulated that Germans were preparing for military action near the Czech border, leading to partial mobilization by the Czech government and warnings from Britain and France.
The rumors were unfounded, but Hitler felt humiliated by having to deny them.
Hitler told his generals in Operation Green that he had decided to attack Czechoslovakia.
Throughout the summer of 1938, tensions increased in the Sudetenland due to violence by Sudeten Germans on Hitler’s instructions.
Czech President Edvard Beneš agreed to all demands for self-government, but Hitler told Sudeten German leader Konrad Heinlein to reject the offer.
The German press fueled anti-Czech sentiment with images of supposed ill-treatment of Sudeten Germans.

Question 275

when did chamberlain decide to act

Answer 275

following czecholovakia declaring martial law and the may crisis

Question 276

what happened at the berchtesgaden meeting on the 15th sept 1938

Answer 276

At this meeting, it
was agreed that the
Sudeten German areas
of Czechoslovakia
should be transferred to
Germany. Chamberlain
persuaded his Cabinet
and the French to agree
to this deal. The Czechs
nally agreed after two
days of persuasion.

Question 277

what happened at the godesberg meeting on 22-23 set 1938

Answer 277

Chamberlain ew to Godesberg
to tell Hitler the good news,
but Hitler was furious.
He wanted an excuse for a
war with Czechoslovakia, not
a peaceful handover of the
Sudetenland. He insisted that
the demands of the Hungarians
and the Poles for territory in
Czechoslovakia should also be
met, and that German troops
should be allowed to occupy the
Sudetenland on 28 September.
It now seemed as though war was inevitable. The Czechs rejected
Hitler’s terms and the French said they would support Czechoslovakia.
As mentioned previously, the Czechs had good defences and a strong
army. They hoped that with the help of their allies, France and the
Soviet Union, they could resist a German attack.

Question 278

waht happedn a the munich conference on 29th septemebr 1938

Answer 278

With Britain and France
now showing that they were
prepared to ght, and with his
own generals pointing out that
Germany was not yet ready
for war, Hitler agreed to a
further conference. Mussolini
stepped in as a mediator
to prevent war, and a Four
Power Conference was held in
Munich. Here, a plan presented
by Mussolini (though written
by Hitler!) was agreed on.

Question 279

a Four Power Conference was held in Munich. Here, a plan presented by Mussolini (though written by Hitler!) was agreed on.

Answer 279

• The German occupation of the Sudetenland would take place by 1 October and an
  international commission would determine a provisional new frontier by 10 October.
  The international commission would also supervise plebiscites in areas of dispute.
• Czechs would be allowed to leave and Germans allowed to join the Sudeten territories
  (neither the plebiscites nor the transfer of populations actually happened).
• Poland was to be given Teschen.
• Hungary was to get South Slovakia.
• Germany, along with the other powers, guaranteed the independence of the rest of
  Czechoslovakia.

Question 280

effects of themunich conferene for czechoslovakia

Answer 280

The Czechs were told that if they resisted
this agreement they would receive no help from Britain or France, even
though France had guaranteed the Czech borders at Locarno. The Czechs
therefore had no option but to agree. Beneš resigned a few days later.
Czechoslovakia lost 70% of
its heavy industry, a third of its population and both the natural
mountainous defences and the man-made fortications of the
Sudetenland. Slovakia and Ruthenia were given self-government for
internal affairs, though were still ultimately controlled from Prague.

Question 281

czechosolovakia after themmunich conference

Answer 281

Hitler changed his mind about taking action against Czechoslovakia after the May Crisis in 1938.
He encouraged the Slovaks to cause disruption and ask for complete independence, which led to Slovakia proclaiming full independence and asking for German protection.
Hitler saw the Munich Agreement as a stepping stone to the liquidation of the Czech state.
After the new Czech President, Emil Hacha, moved troops into Slovakia to crush the agitation, Tiso proclaimed full independence for Slovakia and asked for German protection.
Hacha asked to see Hitler in the hope of saving Czechoslovakia, but he was forced to sign over Bohemia and Moravia to Hitler.
On 15 March 1939, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia.
This action led to a change in British policy towards Germany.

Question 282

describe how geramny mvoed onto poland after czechosolovakia

Answer 282

Hitler’s next target after Czechoslovakia was Poland.
Poland had been dismantled as a country in the 18th century and recreated as a nation at Versailles, which was resented by Germans.
The Polish Corridor, which included the city of Danzig, was a sore spot for Germans as it split East Prussia from the rest of Germany.
Germany proposed to Poland that Danzig should be returned to Germany and it should have direct access to East Prussia, but Poland refused, seeing it as an attack on its territory.

Question 283

describe britains gurantee to poland

Answer 283

In March 1939, Hitler demanded Lithuania to hand over Memel, a city with a substantial German population, and Lithuania complied.
Britain offered a guarantee to Poland on March 30, 1939, promising to lend them support in the event of a German attack.
Hitler was angry about the Anglo-Polish Treaty and responded by declaring the Anglo-German Naval Agreement invalid and ending the 1934 Non-Aggression Pact with Poland.
Hitler ordered his Chief of Staff to prepare for the attack on Poland, known as Operation White, which was a limited war plan rather than a wider war involving Britain and France.

Question 284

effect of mussolinis invasion of albania

Answer 284

Mussolini’s invasion of Albania increased international tensions
Britain and France issued guarantees to Greece and Romania
Germany supported Mussolini’s action in Albania
Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel with Germany (found he needed hitler’s support after the hostile reactions of britian and france)
The pact stipulated that each power would aid the other in hostilities “contrary to its wishes and desires”
Mussolini was not ready for a full-scale conflict and privately made it clear to Hitler that Italy would not be ready for war for another three or four years.

Question 285

what did kershaw say about hitlers feelings abotu war

Answer 285

s, “War for [Hitler] was no conventional military conict. It represented
the decisive step towards the fullment of his ‘idea’, the accomplishment of his
‘mission’” (Kershaw, 1991: 134).

Question 286

how di the nazi soviet pact come about

Answer 286

In 1939, both the Western democracies and Hitler approached the Soviet Union for an alliance.
An alliance with the Soviet Union was highly desirable for Hitler to secure Soviet neutrality in a war with Poland and prevent a two-front conflict.
The Soviet Union initially favored an alliance with Britain and France but the Western democracies were suspicious of a communist government and worked to appease Hitler.
Stalin renewed a proposal of a military alliance with the West following Hitler’s occupation of Prague but negotiations dragged on and both sides ultimately distrusted each other.
On August 24, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact, pledging neutrality in the event of either nation being attacked by a third party.
The pact included a secret protocol dividing Northern and Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.

Question 287

benefts of the nazi soviet pact for hitler

Answer 287

free hand in poland
avoid fighting a war on two fronts
valuabel raw materials

Question 288

benefits of nozi soviet pact for stalin

Answer 288

● It would keep the Soviet Union out of a war. This was important as
it faced a threat in the East from Japan, and the army was weakened
after Stalin’s purges (see glossary box).
● There was always the hope that Germany and the West would weaken
each other in the war and that the Soviet Union would emerge as the
strongest nation.
● He got considerable territorial gains from the pact: half of Poland and
the opportunity to take over Finland and the Baltic States.
● The Soviet Union could keep trading with Germany: Germany was
to send mechanical goods to the Soviet Union in return for raw
materials and foodstuffs (see Source B below for the importance of
this to Germany).

Question 289

why was hitelr taken back when he heard that britian dn poladn had signed a full military alliane on 25th august

Answer 289

he never thought they would declare war

Question 290

mussolini and hitler’s ttempts to prevetn wr

Answer 290

• Hitler delayed his attack on Poland until 1 September, hoping to cause division between Britain and Poland.
• He proposed a last-minute agreement to Britain, which was not accepted, and the Poles refused further negotiation.
• Mussolini proposed a conference to resolve the crisis, but Hitler wanted war and did not want to wait for peace initiatives.
• Germany claimed that one of its wireless stations near the Polish border had been attacked by Poles on 31 August, using it as an excuse for war.
• In reality, SS soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms staged the attack and left behind bodies of criminals dressed in Polish uniforms to make it appear authentic.
• German troops invaded Poland and bombed Warsaw on 1 September 1939.

Question 291

war begins

Answer 291

On 3 September, the British government presented an ultimatum to
Germany to call off the attack by 11.00am. When no response had been
received by this time, Britain and France declared war. Hitler hoped that the
war on Poland would remain a localized affair; in fact, he had unleashed
the most destructive war of all time. A

Question 292

hitler’s actions after the declaration fo war

Answer 292

• attack on poland
• poles quickly defeated in blitzkreig style of war
• germany could now transfer most of theri forces to the west

Question 293

what was the phoney war/ key events in 1939-40

Answer 293

Hitler’s troops occupied Denmark and landed at Norwegian ports in April 1940

Hitler’s tactical skill and luck played a role in his success

Distractions and differences of other powers also contributed to his success

Hitler was able to combine “consistency in aim” with “opportunism and improvisation” in his foreign policy

Hitler achieved his aim of destroying the Treaty of Versailles, uniting Germans, and gaining more Lebensraum

He did not achieve his aim of gaining Britain and Italy as allies

Germany attacked Holland, Belgium, and France simultaneously and achieved swift victories

Paris was captured on 14th June and France surrendered on 22nd June

Battle for Britain took place during the summer and autumn of 1940, with the aim of securing control of the air over the English Channel

Hitler switched to bombing London and other British cities, hoping to break the morale of the British

Operation Barbarossa was launched against the Soviet Union in June 1941, with the aim of achieving lebensraum in the East

The invasion of the Soviet Union ensured that the war would go on for much longer and that Hitler would eventually be defeated.

Question 294

LON formally comes into being

Answer 294

1920 january

Question 295

Japanese invasion of Manchuria:
condemned by the League of Nations;
weak sanctions are imposed

Answer 295

1931 september

Question 296

world disarmament conference

Answer 296

1932-34

Question 297

Franklin D Roosevelt is elected
president in the USA

Answer 297

1932 november

Question 298

1934 july

Answer 298

Italy sends troops to its border with
Austria to prevent Hitler’s attempts at
Anschluss

Question 299

stresa confrence

Answer 299

1935 april

Question 300

hitler becoems chancellor of germany

Answer 300

1933 january

Question 301

neutrality act passed (expires in six months)

Answer 301

august 1935

Question 302

italy invades abysinnia

Answer 302

october 1935

Question 303

The Council of the League declares
Italy to be the aggressor in Abyssinia

Answer 303

7th october 1935

Question 304

leagues assembly votes to impsoe sanctions

Answer 304

11th october 1935

Question 305

limited sanctions papplied

Answer 305

november 1935

Question 306

hoare-lova lpact

Answer 306

december 1935

Question 307

The French Popular Front wins the election.

Answer 307

1936 january

Question 308

usa psses on new neutrality acts

Answer 308

februaray 1936

Question 309

italy conquers abysinnia

Answer 309

may 1936

Question 310

The League ends sanctions on Italy
Italy and Germany intervene in the
Spanish Civil War

Answer 310

july 1936

Question 311

august 1936

Answer 311

britian and france set up no nintervention commitee

Question 312

january 1937

Answer 312

The USA passes a joint resolution
outlawing the arms trade in Spain

Question 313

Neville Chamberlain becomes Prime
Minister of Britain

Answer 313

may 1937

Question 314

italy withdraws from league of nations

Answer 314

decemebr 1937

Question 315

in an italian and british agreement, britain recognizes italian abysinnia

Answer 315

1938 april

Question 316

musolini now accepts anschluss

Answer 316

may 1938

Question 317

The Munich Conference: Mussolini, Hitler,
Chamberlain and Daladier meet

Answer 317

september 1938

Question 318

hitler invades areas of czechosolovakia, breaking the munich agreement

Answer 318

march 1939

Question 319

italy invades albania

Answer 319

april 1939

Question 320

Italy declares itself a non-belligerent when
Germany invades Poland

Answer 320

1 september 1939

Question 321

Mussolini attempts to set up a conference
to avoid war

Answer 321

3 september 1939

Question 322

Mussolini declares war on Britain and
France

Answer 322

1940 june

Question 323

italy invades egyot and greece

Answer 323

septemebr - october

Question 324

usa passes the lend-lease act

Answer 324

1941 march

Question 325

appeasement

Answer 325

diplomatic policy of making concessions to nations in order to avoid confict. Appeasement failed
to prevent the outbreak of war and came to be seen as a weak and
dishonourable policy. It allowed both Mussolini and Hitler to get away
with territorial demands, which encouraged Hitler to ask continuously for
more, resulting in the outbreak of war in 1939. However, for most of the
inter-war years, appeasement was seen as a positive idea, and as part of a
long-standing tradition of trying to settle disputes peacefully

Question 326

reasons for appeasement

Answer 326

The Franchise Act of 1918 increased the number of voters in Britain from 8 million to 21 million, including women over 30 years of age, and from 1928, the age was lowered to 21. so gov were more likely to tak enote of public opinion, which was against war and infavour of collective security.

horror of ww1. anti war feeling

increasing ideas that tov was harsh and it was not all germanys fault

lack of alternative policy

weakened economy

defence priprities

impact of neveille chamberlain

Question 327

nti appeasers

Answer 327

for.sec. eden resigned in feb 1938

churchill called for rearmament to be stepped up and vehmently opposed concessions to germany. supported a grand alliance fo the anti fascist powers.

duff cooper resigned in rotest of munich agreeement

david low cartoonist

Question 328

In 1937, the Treasury put forward a report
on defence expenditure in which the priorities for defence were to be, in
order of importance:

Answer 328

● military preparation sufcient to repulse air attacks
● the preservation of trade routes for the supply of food and
raw materials
● the defence of the Empire
● the defence of Britain’s allies.

Question 329

why did france align its foreign policy to britains policy of appeasement inthe 1930s

Answer 329

France faced huge debts after World War I and had suffered economically from the fighting on its land, with about 10% being laid to waste, which had an impact on industrial and agricultural resources.

The French population wanted Germany punished and permanently weakened to prevent any future German attack.

When the USA failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations, the French felt abandoned.

When Britain showed some sympathy with the view that Germany had been treated too harshly at Versailles, the French were appalled at this apparent collapse of the Anglo-American guarantee of the post-war settlement.

The frequent changes of government and ideological conflicts in France in the 1930s meant that it was unable to take any action against Germany.

There was a conflict between France’s foreign policy and its military planning. Despite a series of guarantees to the states of Eastern Europe, which would have required France to demonstrate some offensive capability, its military planning in the 1930s was entirely defensive.

When Britain decided on a policy of appeasement in the 1930s, France had to follow its strongest ally’s line.

Question 330

why didnt LON intervene to aggression

Answer 330

● It lacked the credibility and economic power of its founding nation,
the USA.
● Its key organ of power was the Council, which was led by Britain,
France, Italy and Japan, with Germany joining in 1926. The latter
three countries were “revisionist” powers who wanted to revise the
Treaty of Versailles.
● The Soviet Union was not a member until September 1934.
● The League’s structure and organization was inefcient.
● It was impotent in the face of the aggressive military fascist states,
and each time it failed to act effectively it lost more authority

Question 331

why ddidnt us ajoin the LON

Answer 331

wanted to be free to engage in trade and investment globally and wished to avoid being draw in in to conflicts that were not in its own intersets.

Question 332

when didthe s.u. abandon its attempts to work with the british and french in order to contain tee fascist aggresssors

Answer 332

came at the
Munich Conference in September 1938. Despite its assistance pact with
Czechoslovakia and the territorially strategic importance of that country
to the Soviet Union, Stalin was not invited to the Munich Conference.

Question 333

What was the international response to the
Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935–36?

Answer 333

Both France and Britain had attempted to keep Mussolini on their side to contain German ambitions, and at the Stresa Front in 1935, the French had given Mussolini the impression that they would tolerate Italian expansion in East Africa. Britain had been silent on the matter at the conference, but when Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden went to Rome in June 1935, he offered a plan that would accommodate Italian expansionist plans. However, the Italians rejected the plan as they perceived that Britain wanted to accommodate them. When Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in October 1935, there was widespread international public outrage and condemnation from the League of Nations. British public opinion was against the invasion and in favor of action by the League, but the League proved ineffective in dealing with the crisis.

Question 334

The response of the League to the invasion of abyssinia

Answer 334

on 6th december 1935, following the walwal incident, Abyssinian Emperor Haile Selassie asked the League of Nations to arbitrate; however the League’s arbitration committee found neither side responsible.
On 17 March 1935, following a large build-up of Italian forces in East Africa, Emperor Haile Selassie appealed directly to the League, as a member state, for its support. The Italian mobilization continued and on 11 May Selassie appealed to the League again.
On 20 May, the League held a special session to discuss the crisis and on 19 June Selassie requested League observers be sent to the region. Talks between ofcials from Italy and Abyssinia broke down at The Hague.

Question 335

the response of france to the invasion of abyssinia

Answer 335

On 7 January 1935, a Franco–Italian agreement was made. In return for Italian support to contain Hitler, France gave Italy parts of French Somaliland, improved the ofcial status of Italians living in Tunisia and tacitly allowed Mussolini to do as h

Question 336

wehn did britian decalre an arms embargo on italy

Answer 336

25th july 1935

Question 337

clash between the league and britian in response to the invasion of abyssinia by italy

Answer 337

On 7 October, the League duly found Italy the aggressor and began the process of imposing sanctions; however, this process was slow and the sanctions were limited. They did not embargo key war materials, such as coal, steel and oil, and the sanctions were not carried out by all members of the League. The British government had not wanted to implement harsh sanctions as Britain wanted to revive the Stresa Front and to maintain good relations with Mussolini. However, the British government was also under pressure to uphold the authority of the League.

Question 338

hoare-loval pact

Answer 338

drawn up to end the conflict and pacify mussolini by givign him most of abyssinnia. Selassie would receive access to the
sea. However, the plan was leaked in the French press. Public opinion
in both Britain and France was outraged by this apparent duplicity
and demanded support for the League’s policy. The British and French
governments were forced to denounce the pact and sanctions continued.
Laval and Hoare resigned.

Question 339

results of the hoare loval pact and the abyssinian crisis

Answer 339

The Hoare–Laval pact sealed the fate of the League of Nations in 1935.
It had been exposed as a sham. The attention of Britain and France was
drawn away from East Africa and closer to home when Hitler remilitarized
the Rhineland in March 1936. France was prepared to let Mussolini
complete his conquest in return for his support against Hitler, and the
French would not support any further action regarding sanctions.
Selassie ed on 2 May, and the Abyssinian capital, Addis Ababa, fell to
Italian forces. However, there was no ofcial surrender by Abyssinia and
a guerrilla war continued against the Italians. Selassie made pleas for
support from the League and on 30 June, despite the jeering of Italian
journalists, he made a powerful speech criticizing the international
community for its inaction. He moved for a resolution to deny
recognition of the Italian conquest. He concluded with the ominous and
prophetic statement,“It is us today. It will be you tomorrow”.
Despite Selassie’s impassioned speech, his resolution failed; on 4 July, the
League voted to end its sanctions, which were lifted on the 15 July. The
new “Italian Empire” was recognized by Japan on 18 November 1936
in return for recognition of its own occupation of Manchuria. In 1938,
Britain and France recognized Italian control of Abyssinia, although the
USA and USSR refused to recognise the Italian Empire.
It had fatally undermined the
League of Nations as a credible body for dealing with aggressor states. It
also ended the Stresa Front. Both France and Britain believed after this
conict that appeasement was the only route they could take to avoid a
conict with Hitler’s Germany. Thus the crisis had shifted the balance of
power to Germany’s advantage. Mussolini would now move towards a
full alliance with Hitler.

Question 340

usa response ot the invasion of abyssinia

Answer 340

President Roosevelt sent Mussolini a personal message on 18 August
1935. He stated that the US government and people believed that
the failure to arrive at a peaceful settlement in East Africa would be
a calamity and would lead to adverse effects for all nations.
However, the United States would not take any direct action, as
was made clear in a radio address by Secretary of State Hull on 6
November 1935. In this broadcast, he said it was the USA’s duty
to remain aloof from disputes and conicts with which it had no
direct concern.

Question 341

How did Britain and France respond to the Italian invasion of Albania, 7 April 1939?

Answer 341

Britain and France condemned Italy’s invasion of Albania and Chamberlain no longer trusted the dictators. Chamberlain guaranteed Greek borders with British military support, but did not agree to Churchill’s suggestion of sending in the Royal Navy. Mussolini was surprised at the appeasers’ commitment to Greece.

Question 342

What was the reaction of Britain to Italian expansion in 1940?

Answer 342

During World War II, Italy joined the war in June 1940 and invaded Egypt and Greece from Albania. In response, the British launched Operation Compass and pushed Italian forces out of Egypt, defeating them at Beda Fomm in Libya in February 1941. The British Navy also sank half of the Italian fleet in Taranto and occupied Crete.

Question 343

points of sympathy in britain towards germanys desire to reverse certian apsects of TOV

Answer 343

Following
Germany’s withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and the
League of Nations in 1933 (see page 157), Britain worked hard to get
Germany back into the conference. It proposed that Germany should be
allowed to have an army of 200,000 (rather than the 100,000 stipulated
in the Treaty of Versailles), that France should also reduce its army to
200,000, and that Germany should be allowed an air force half the size of
the French air force.

Question 344

international reacton to germanys rearmament

Answer 344

In 1935, Germany’s rearmament and introduction of conscription caused concern among other powers. A conference was held in Stresa, Italy, attended by the prime ministers and foreign ministers of France, Britain, and Italy to protest Hitler’s actions and reaffirm their commitment to the Treaty of Versailles. However, France’s conclusion of the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty with Russia and Britain’s unwillingness to enter a naval race with Germany led to the downfall of the united front. Britain’s agreement to limit the German fleet to 35% of the British fleet in the Anglo-German Naval Agreement allowed Germany to triple its navy’s size, and the restrictions on the German navy under the Treaty of Versailles were set aside.

Question 345

What was the international reaction to the remilitarization
of the Rhineland?

Answer 345

In 1936, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles and Locarno Treaties by marching into the Rhineland.
France was unable to respond as their government was a “caretaker” government and the divisions in French society made a clear response impossible.
The French army’s general staff exaggerated the number of German forces, making a response seem even more difficult.
France looked to Britain for a response, but Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin’s government also did not want to contemplate war due to overstretched military commitments and not seeing Hitler’s actions as particularly threatening.
Hitler offered negotiations at the same time as invading, making it easier to aim for a settlement rather than confronting him directly.
Foreign Minister Anthony Eden suggested negotiating for the surrender of their rights in the demilitarized zone rather than fighting for it.
Failure to stop Hitler at this point is often seen as a turning point, the last chance to stop him without war.
However, at the time, political and public opinion were in favor of peace and negotiating with Germany.

Question 346

In France, a Popular Party government with similar views to the
republican government in Spain was elected in

Answer 346

June 1936.

Question 347

A total of 16 countries signed the Non-Intervention Pact. However,
???? of the key members of the Non-Intervention Committee (NIC) –
??? – ignored the NIC commitment
completely and, as we have seen, sent substantial aid into Spain.

Answer 347

3 members
Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union

Question 348

In addition, Britain’s policy of non-intervention favoured the nationalists:

Answer 348

● It focused on preventing aid to the Republic and allowed the
Nationalists, rather than the Republicans, to use Gibraltar as a
communications base.
● In December 1936, Britain signed a trading agreement with the
Nationalists that allowed British companies to trade with the rebels.
● Franco, not the Spanish republicans, was able to get credit from
British banks.

Question 349

international reaction to spanish cviil war

Answer 349

In June 1936, a Popular Party government was elected in France with similar views to the Republican government in Spain.
French Prime Minister Leon Blum wanted to support the Spanish government to prevent a right-wing regime from joining Italy and Germany to encircle France.
Blum feared opposition if he directly intervened and so came up with the idea of non-intervention, which all European countries would commit to.
British Prime Minister Baldwin’s government agreed with the French plan, but for different motives.
The British government believed the Nationalists would probably win the war and did not want to make an enemy of General Franco.
British business interests in Spain also feared financial risks if Franco lost and a socialist or communist government took over. They supported Franco’s tough anti-union position.

Question 350

whyw as there a limited response to anschluss

Answer 350

● France was paralysed by an internal political crisis and did not even
have a government at the time of Anschluss. Ministers threatened to
call up reservists to strengthen France’s army but needed Britain’s
support, which was not forthcoming.
● Italy was now increasingly dependent on German friendship and
refused to respond to Chancellor Schuschnigg’s appeals for help.
● The League of Nations was discredited after the Abyssinian affair and
Anschluss was not even referred to the League for discussion.
● In Britain, there was a feeling that Germany’s union with Austria
was inevitable. Chamberlain made a statement in the House of
Commons in which he condemned Germany’s actions and the way
in which Anschluss had taken place, but also stated, “the hard fact is …
that nothing could have arrested this action by Germany unless we and others
with us had been prepared to use force to prevent it”.

Question 351

frances reaction to anschluss

Answer 351

Following Anschluss, it was clear to Britain and France that
Czechoslovakia would be the focus of Hitler’s next foreign policy moves.
France had two treaties with Czechoslovakia, signed in 1924 and 1925,
which committed France to assisting Czechoslovakia in the event of
a threat to their common interests. However, the French also saw
that they were in no position to keep to these treaty obligations. They
argued that Czechoslovakia could not be defended, and French Prime
Minister Daladier and Foreign Minister Bonnet were only too happy
to follow Britain’s lead in nding a way out of a military showdown
with Germany.

Question 352

british reacton ot anschluss

Answer 352

Many British politicians had sympathy with Czechoslovakia, as it had
survived as a democracy for a longer period than the other new states
in central and eastern Europe. However, Chamberlain did not believe
that Czechoslovakia was worth ghting for. He saw Czechoslovakia as
a “highly articial” creation and one that was ultimately unsustainable.
He had some sympathy with the Sudeten Germans and believed that he
could organize a peaceful and negotiated handover of the Sudetenland
to Germany.

Question 353

attempt to find a diplonmtatic solution after anchluss

Answer 353

Britain and France worked hard to nd a diplomatic solution.
Following Hitler’s speech of 12 September 1938 at the Nuremberg Rally
(see page 176), Chamberlain decided to seize the initiative and to y
to meet Hitler in Germany. This was a radical move in the world of
diplomacy, as at this time prime ministers did not y abroad to meet
other leaders one to one. This was the rst time that Chamberlain had
own; as historian David Reynolds has pointed out, it also marked the
rst of the 20th century summits between world leaders.
At the meeting, Hitler demanded that all areas of Czechoslovakia in
which Germans comprised over 50% of the population should join
Germany. This would be supervised by an international commission.
Chamberlain agreed, but said that he would have to get the
agreement of the Czechs and the French rst. Chamberlain privately
remarked that,
In spite of the hardness and ruthlessness I thought I saw in his face, I got the
impression that here was a man who could be relied upon when he had given
his word.
Over the following week, Chamberlain was able to get agreement
for this deal from the British Cabinet and the French government,
despite the fact that this would mean ignoring their alliance with
Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovakian government, led by President
Edvard Beneš, was told that, if these proposals were rejected, the Czechs
would have to face Germany on their own. Czechoslovakia accepted the
plan on 21 September 1938.
On 22 September, Chamberlain ew back to Germany, expecting to have
a discussion at Bad Godesberg about the proposals that had previously
been discussed and were now agreed upon. However, Hitler now said
that the previous proposals did not go far enough. He wanted the claims
of Hungary and Poland to Czech territory met and he wanted to occupy
the Sudetenland no later than 1 October. Back in Britain, many of Chamberlain’s colleagues rejected the
Godesberg proposals. France now said it would honour its commitments
to Czechoslovakia; the Czechs said that the new proposals were
unacceptable. All countries started preparing for war. In Britain, trenches
were dug in London’s parks and 38 million gas masks were distributed. Hitler agreed to a third conference, which was to be chaired by Mussolini.
As you can see in the Pathé News clip below, this last hope for peace
was greeted with much enthusiasm in Britain. Neither the Czech
president, Edvard Beneš, nor the Soviet leader, Stalin, was invited to
the conference, which agreed to give the Sudetenland to Germany (see
page 178 for full details of the Munich Agreement). For Chamberlain,
however, the highlight of the conference, was securing from Hitler
a joint declaration that Britain and Germany would only deal with
problems through negotiation and would not attempt to use force. For
Chamberlain, this meant “peace in our time” (though this was a phrase
that he later said he regretted using). There was much relief in Britain that war had been averted. The British
press mostly supported Chamberlain’s policy and Chamberlain had
support from the majority of his party. However, even at the time,
there was criticism of the agreement.

Question 354

The invasion of Czechoslovakia:The end of appeasement

Answer 354

Hitler’s takeover of the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, caused
great shock and outrage in Britain. It was now clear that Hitler’s aims
were not limited; he had broken a signed agreement and his invasion
of Czechoslovakia could not be justied by any claim to be uniting
Germans. There was a shift of opinion in Britain, and Chamberlain was
put under pressure to take a rmer stand against Hitler.

Question 355

international reaction to hitlers demands regarding poland

Answer 355

Britain and France offered guarantees to Poland on March 31, 1939, stating they would come to its aid if it was attacked unprovoked.
Poland was controversial due to its right-wing military dictatorship, anti-Semitic views, and expansionist actions.
The guarantees to Poland acted as a warning to Hitler and allowed Britain to take direct action against aggression.
Britain and France also gave guarantees to Greece and Romania after Mussolini invaded Albania on April 7, 1939.
Britain negotiated an agreement with Turkey for mutual assistance in the Mediterranean area.
Both Britain and France increased military preparations, and conscription was introduced in April 1939.
The Pact of Steel strengthened military collaboration between Italy and Germany.
By 1939, Britain and France were in a stronger military position and could take a firmer stand against Hitler.
Air defense and the introduction of radar in Britain were near completion, and the rearmament program was set to peak in 1939-40, making Britain on roughly equal terms with Germany militarily.

Question 356

why was chamberlanin concernecd about an alliance with russia

Answer 356

● The Soviet army was militarily weak after Stalin’s purges.
● An alliance could alienate other Eastern European countries that
Britain hoped to win over to form a diplomatic front against Germany.
● If Germany felt hemmed-in this could actually push it towards war.
● An alliance might push Poland, where Stalin was also distrusted, and
Spain into an alliance with Hitler.

Question 357

chard overy onw hy last minute attempt of diplomacy between russi and britian failed

Answer 357

Richard Overy. Origins of the Second World War
(2008).
Talks continued throughout the summer,
though both sides complained endlessly about
the obduracy and deviousness of the other. In
August the Soviet side insisted on full military
discussions before any more progress could be
made. Again the west showed what Molotov
later condemned as a “dilatory” attitude. The
British delegation was sent on a long trip
by sea instead of by air. When it arrived the
Soviet negotiators, all top military and political
gures, found that the British had sent a
junior representative, who had no powers to
negotiate and sign an agreement. This slight
deeply offended Soviet leaders. It was soon
discovered that the western delegations had
no real plans for the military alliance, and had
not even secured agreement for the passage
of Soviet forces across Poland to ght the
German army. The discussions, which had
begun on 12 August 1939, broke up after
three days and were not revived.

Question 358

reactions of britain and france to hitler’s actions, 1939-1940

Answer 358

British and French promises of aid to Poland were unable to offer help against the Nazi attack in September.
During the phoney war, Britain prepared for air attack, debated aid to Finland, and laid mines to block Swedish iron ore to Germany.
The failure of the Norway campaign contributed to Chamberlain’s resignation, and Churchill took over as head of a coalition government.
After France’s defeat and Britain’s evacuation from Dunkirk, Churchill refused Hitler’s peace proposal and continued fighting.
Britain attempted to find allies in 1940, but the USA remained isolationist and most Americans were against involvement in the war.
By the end of 1940, Britain was suffering from Germany’s U-boat campaign, but Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to Germany’s defeat.

Question 359

what does steiner write about the reaction of britian dnd france to hitler’s actions

Answer 359

Each of the Axis powers were encouraged to embark on aggressive policies
which were to bring the Soviet Union and the United States into what became
in 1941 a global conict. While the survival of Britain prevented a total
German victory, only the entry of the Soviet Union and the United States
ensured the destruction of Nazi Germany and, for the most part, dictated the
outcome of the world war and the shape of the post-war settlement.
— Steiner, p. 1064

Question 360

How important was appeasement as a cause of the
Second World War?

Answer 360

Sir Winston Churchill called the Second World War “the
unnecessary war” that would not have taken place had Hitler been
227
CHAPT ER 2.7: THE INT ERNAT IONA L RE SPONS E TO GERMAN AGGRE SS ION, 1933–1940
stopped earlier, for example in 1936 over the Rhineland or in 1938
over Czechoslovakia. The “appeasers” were seen as weak, frightened
men who had been afraid to stand up to Hitler and who had failed to
realize that they were dealing with a calculating and ruthless dictator.
By consistently giving in to Hitler’s demands they had encouraged his
aggression and alienated the Soviet Union. Appeasement also meant
that Hitler had gambled on that policy continuing when he invaded
Poland, which was the trigger for war.
When British Cabinet minutes and government papers became available
30–40 years after the end of the Second World War, it became clear
that Chamberlain had been dealing with a complex situation. Given
the difculties and constraints on Chamberlain – which included the
realities of the British economy, British imperial commitments, as well as
public opinion concerning the horror of another war and the injustices
of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany – it becomes easier to see the
forces that shaped appeasement as a policy.

Question 361

ajp taylor on appeaseement

Answer 361

AJP Taylor argued that Hitler
did not have a clear plan for how he would carry out his foreign policy
aims, and that he in fact reacted to the actions of the European leaders:
the Fascist dictators would not have gone to war unless they had seen a
chance of winning … the cause of war was therefore as much the blunders
of others as the wickedness of the dictators themselves — Taylor, 1961

Question 362

what does richard ovary argue about chamberlains policy

Answer 362

Richard Overy argues that
Chamberlain’s policy was, in fact, the right one for Britain at the time
and paid off in the sense that Hitler was forced into a general European
war earlier than he had planned, and at a date when Britain was in a
stronger military position than it had been in 1938