move to global war: italian and german expansionism 1870-1933 Flashcards

Question

long term weaknesses of liberal italy

Answer 1

lack of national identity Iregionalism and political division between north and south) catholic church (anti clerical policies vs liberal governments) working class protest

Answer 2

middle and upper classes dominated the political system and vote was limited to wealthy elites until 1930 when all men were given the vote. liberal govs had the reputation of corruption and only representing the needs of themiddle and upper classes. led to the founding of the psi, in 1892.

Answer 3

closing trade unions, banning parties like psi

Answer 4

unreedemed lands

Answer 5

right wing libreals hoped that if italy joined the entente then they would gain the italisan speaking territories of austo-hungarian empires. signed april 1915.

Answer 6

nationalists and fututrissts not th psi but others on the left as they thought it would destroy liberal Italy and and foster revolution

Answer 7

psi, viewing the conflict as imperialist war

Answer 8

argued for intervention

Answer 9

italy finally achieved victory against austrians at the battle of vittorio veneto. however human cost of 600,000 men dead increased political division in Italy. many resented the liberal gov for mismangement of the war, and resented the psi for their anti war stance workforce mobilized to fight a total war so number of industrial workers grew increased membership of trade unions an the PSI both increasingly militant by end of war

Answer 10

nationalism militarism social darwinism social unity authoritarianism

Answer 11

political crises following ww1 liberals fared badly in 1919 elections no parties able to form a coherent coalition gov. short term gov's undermined the credibility of the democratic parliamentary system. pm had not claimed territory Italy had claimed from defeated austro-hungarian empire. reciefved tyrol, istrian peninsular, port of trieste and dodecanese islands. port in and prtectroeate over albania. DID NOT RECIEVE dalmatia or colonies

Answer 12

dalmatia or colonies

Answer 13

a mutilated victory

Answer 14

fascism not based on clear doctrine or theories so could appeal to a wide range of groups across the class divide. italians embraced the strict law and order

Answer 15

35 to pnf 108 to ppi 138 to psi

Answer 16

led 2000 ex soldiers to occupy fiume by force in protest against the gov decision to hand over the port to Yugoslavia. gov proved too weak to remove d'annuzio until giolitti reutrend as pm. undermined the italian Democratic system

Answer 17

high inflation unemployment at 2million in 1919 us restrictions on immigration fear of communism due to bolshevik rev 2 red years where socialists tried to catalyse a bolshevik style rev the support of the left mainly transferred to the right gained support from the wealthy landowners and industrialists supported by catholic church which gained them a lot ofsupport

Answer 18

the coalition gov led by firs titalian socialst pm ivanoe bonomi. followed by weak conservative coalition led by luigi facta that was unable to control the increasing violence

Answer 19

socialists and communists

Answer 20

engaged in negotations with conservative politicians to support his appointment fasics squads had expelled socialist councils in several towns nad there had been widespread rumours of a fascist march on rome

Answer 21

accept anything but the pm role

Answer 22

16th october when we met with leading fasicst in milan.

Answer 23

27th october

Answer 24

gov resigned after this but pm was asked to stay. he asked the king to take declare martial law so armyt could crush fasist revolt. king agreed and then changed his mind to side with Mussolini. mussolini then offered position of pm.

Answer 25

at first he had to share power with the political parties. he was a pm but only 4/12 deputies . then made many moves towards dictatorship

Answer 26

november 1922

Answer 27

april 1924

Answer 28

3rd jan 1925

Answer 29

december 1925

Answer 30

political parties and trade unions banned. press now strictly controlled. elected local officials replaced by appointed government officials

Answer 31

the fascis tparty increased repression and a new secret police was founded: the OVRA. powers of arrest increased, trail without jury permitted and scope of death penalty expanded to include action against the authorities

Answer 32

italians had to conform to fasicst expectations and comply with state's laws. no overt opposition or criticism and this was enforced by the secret police and milita. employees of the state had to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime and the young were mobilised to join the youth movement. cult of personality. HOWEVER still limitations; had to manage king and church.

Answer 33

increase national pride consolidate domestic support for the regime revise the post war settlement of 1919-20 dominate the balkans dominate the med build an empire (spazio vitale), expand its territories in Africa foster spread of fascims to other countries

Answer 34

self sufficent (autarky) resources higher literaacy rate

Answer 35

a new way of organising the economy, an alternative to capitalism and socialism

Answer 36

in 1928 set out a plan for land reclamation an expensive failure

Answer 37

led to an increase in grain production and imports fell by 75% but this came at the cost of other corops.

Answer 38

value of lira fell from 154 to 90 to the British pound. gov cut wages by 10% in 1927.

Answer 39

to conslidate domestic control and then foreign

Answer 40

invade corfu after an italian official was killed on the greek border with Albania. after withdrawing he demanded 50million lire of compensation

Answer 41

LoN condemned it and demanded but only withdrew when britain threatened to use its navy.

Answer 42

he could oly bully smaller sttes and not intimidate bigger ones like britian

Answer 43

in 1924 he sent a military commander to trule over it. in the pact of rome, the yugoslavs gace in and the port was ceded to Italy.

Answer 44

mussolinip;s success in the Balkans led him to believe he could intimidate the Yugoslav and undermine the french influence there. he tried to gain destablise the country by funding ethnic groups who wanted indepence like the croats.

Answer 45

in 1924 an itlaian backed leader called zog took power in labania on yougoslavia's border. mussolini invested in zog's regime and helped train the Albanian army. it led to an official treaty of freindshio between the two states in 1926, through which albania became an Italian protecteorate

Answer 46

yugoslavia, romania and czechoslovakia,

Answer 47

- italy had claims over the french territories corsica, nice and sardinia, - mussolini was jealous of french north africa and he supported opposition movements to french control in tunisia and morocco - mussolini aimed to replace french influence in the balkans and the territory around the adriatic

Answer 48

october 1925

Answer 49

the seven agreements that resulted aimed to secure the post war settlement and normalise relations with Germany. the agreements confirmed germany's western borders with france and belgium but left its eastern border open for future negotiation. the rhineland pact was also signed to prevent future conflict between Germany, france and belgium

Answer 50

although mussolini failed to get the italian border with austria included in the locarno treaties he played a key part in the meetings. the locarno treaties ushered in a new period of cooperation and hope for future peace known as the locarno spirit. they culminated in thekellogg briand pact of 1928

Answer 51

denoucned the use of war a sa means to resolve disputes. itay one of 60 to sign which had been drawn up by the US sec of state Kellogg and the French foreign minister Briand.

Answer 52

"so sublime that it should be called transcendental"

Answer 53

funded right wing groups ingeramny and also secretly trained german pilots in italy

Answer 54

independence movements against the french

Answer 55

britally crushed a revolt in libya in 1922-28. in 1928 the 'pacification' campaign had become a full scale war and was only put down tih the use of masice force and mass executions. in a cynical move, Mussolini also signed a treaty of friendship with Abyssinia in 1928 despite his long ter ambitions conquest there.

Answer 56

musolini furstrated at the failure of tradiitoonal diplomacy. had to support the disarmament efforts of the league of nations due to weaknesses of the Italian armed forces . in 1927 he ominously told the Italian parliament that he would expand the Italian air force until it could block out the sun. in the 1930s he became more aggressive with foreign policy as hitler gained more power. he looked for opportunities to demonstrate that Italy was a major power. he argued that the future lay with new virile states like Germany and not old liberal states like Britain and france.

Answer 57

when the bolsheviks seized power in october 1917./

Answer 58

in 1921 italu recognised the new gov in the s.u. when it negotiated two trade agreement with Moscow. mussolini wanted to develop commercial arrangements and in 1924 they formally recognised the s.u. he saw that it could be a useful tool in gaining diplomatic leverage over other powers. fascist Italy nad bolshecik russsia aremianed on good terms through he 1920s.

Answer 59

soviets also interested in fosterign better relations with Italy. germany and bolshevik russia had signed the rapallo treaty in 1922 in which they renounced all territorial and financial claims following ww1 and the s.u. wanted to draw Italy into the rapallo alignment. italy was also unhappy with post war settlement

Answer 60

1918 november

Answer 61

1918 november

Answer 62

1919 january

Answer 63

1919 september

Answer 64

1920 march

Answer 65

1923 january

Answer 66

november 1923

Answer 67

september 1923

Answer 68

october 1925

Answer 69

1929 october

Answer 70

1930 september

Answer 71

1933 january

Answer 72

failure of schliffen plan removed idea of short and victorious war in 1917 victory seemed in sight; in the treaty fo breast itovsk, Germany secured gains from russia. ludendorff launched an offensive on the western front that pushed the allies back to Paris. german hope crushed when allies pushed back. los tis best troops in 1918 offensive, and an outbreak of Spanish flu also lowered morale. germany then asked for an armistice before the end of the war to reduce severe terms. wilson demanded kaiser resign and then signed.

Answer 73

many doemstic problems, strikes, political unrest, mutineu from sailors at kiel, impact of allied blockade causing food shortages so kaiser abdicated nad german socialist gov agreed to the armistice.

Answer 74

that the germans never lsot and it was the socialists fauly for agreeing to an armistice when they were about win

Answer 75

1919 drawn up at palace of versailles and was mainly work of; pm of France (clemenceau), pm of Britain (lloyd george), p ww from USA 14pts

Answer 76

make germany pay adn weaken it

Answer 77

preserve naval supremacy and enlarge empire.

Answer 78

lasting and just set of international relations

Answer 79

worked for army as intelligence agent sent to investigate german workers party (founded jan 1919) suspected of plotting a left wing rev. in fact it was an extreme nationalsit party that was attempting to win over working class support.hitler joined dexler (leader)'s invitation to join renamed it and gave it the swastika as the new symbol.

Answer 80

pan-germanism. unification for germany with german minorities in other countries race and living space. idea of aryan race. social Darwinism. natural enemies and allies hitler saw russia as natural enemy because f of communis, France because of tov,, britian seen as potential aally because it opposed france's occupation of the ruhr in 1923. admired their empire.

Answer 81

primarily, violent repression of left wing uprisings, and a poor economy where hyperinflation meant in 1923 one pre 1914 mark was worth 2500 paper marks. some people had their pensions wiped out

Answer 82

lots of poltiical unrest, french occupation and economic catastophe.

Answer 83

an association of right wing groups created to coordinate tactics against the republic.

Answer 84

he tried to takeover the government buildings with 600 SA men(despite no support form the bavarian government, police or army). armed police therefore opened fire and killed 16 stormtroopers.

Answer 85

turned hitelr into a national figure and gave the nazi party free publicity. hitler claimed he was acting patriotically and although found guilty only received 5 years imprisonment he served less than a year of this after writing mein kampf.

Answer 86

using legal and constitiutional means to take power in germant. the nazi party was relaunched in 1925 with hitelr gaining control over it in 1926. party was reorganised with youth and women groups. modern propaganda techniques used.

Answer 87

new rentenmark dawes plan: froze german reparation payments for 2 years and set up loans for Germany from the USA. 1929: young plan, where the USA agreed to give more loans to Germany. a much reduced scheme of repayments for reparations est up over the next 50 years.

Answer 88

pragamatic nationalist cooperation with britian and france was the best way to achieve these aims. (Kellogg briand pact 1928, locano treated 1925)

Answer 89

a period of new hope for european cooperation following the locarbo treaties.

Answer 90

16th april 1922 signed by reps of the governments of germany and the s.u. at a world economic conference at genoa in Italy. re-established diplomatic relations and renounced that the financial claims that each country had on the other an pledged future cooperation. secret clauses to the treaty allowed germant to manufacture aeroplanes and ammunition forbidden by the tov.

Answer 91

2.8 million to 6 million

Answer 92

gov expenditure cuts, wage cuts, job losses, food prices fell and small farmers badly affected. banks folded and industrial production dropped dbu over 50%

Answer 93

polarization in german politics

Answer 94

portrayed the nazi party as the party that would provide food and jobs in the economic crisis. stepped up his attacks on the weimar republic, restatign the myth that germany had been "stabbed in the back by the german criminals" who still dominated the weimar gov. along with other right wing parties, hitler criticised stresemanns policies of friendship and collaboration with the west. believe that these amounted to acceptance of tov.

Answer 95

right wing parties believe that the treaties only benefitted the french and that germany should not join l.o.n. which as responsible for enforcing tov. meanwhile, dawes and young plan were opposed because these accepted that germany should be paying reparations.

Answer 96

when bruning called for unscheduled election sin 1930, nazis had a chance to break into mainstream policies. hitler's electoral following impressed army leaders and right wing nationalist politicians who watned to form a strong gov. leading members o the german goc like army leader called for hitler to be chancellor of Germany in 1933 as they wanted him on their side and thought they could control him. in the hopes of creating a stabel gov, pres hindenburg agreed. in the pos of chancellor, with only two other nazi partymembers in the cabinet, hitler was able to secure his position as dictator.

Answer 97

increased their seats from 12 to 107 6 million votes

Answer 98

1. after 1933 reichstag burning, decree passed suspending freedom of the press, of speech and of association. leading communists an socialist politicians imprisoned. nazi's won 43.9% of the vote. 2. hitler passes the enabling act 3. rest of gov nazified. state parliments abolished, trade unions shut down and socialist and communsit party banned. other parties dissolved themselves. 4. in 1934, hitler moved against the SA, which was becoming potential threat and embarrassment. rohm wanted to join the SA and the army together to keep them both under his control. hitler did not want this nad during the night of long knives, some 200 people we killed as hitler used the SS to purge the leaders of the SA and get rid of other enemies. 5. when pres of weimar rep died, hitelr merged the offices of chancellor an president, and in august 1934, all german armed forces took a personal oath of loyalty to hitler.

Answer 99

reichstag building burnt down. communsit found inside and nazis claimed it was a communist plot.

Answer 100

hitler could pass lawas withut the reichstags consent. this was achieved by preventing the communists from taking their seats and consequently winnign 2/3 of the vote.

Answer 101

1933: for jews, roma, gay people, jehovah's witnesses. meanwhile, nuremburg laws of 1935 said that aryan germans were forbidden from having any relationship with jews. only those of aryan blood could become german citizens with full political rights.

Answer 102

he refers to what he says in mein kampf and zweites buch a lot, and in speeches between 1928 and 1933. however did he have an idea on how to achieve them? AJP taykor: no, actions determined by economic pressures and demands from within the nazi party hildebrand: yes he had a definte programme of expansions dn conquest with clear phases. 1. ending of tov, and formation of alliance with Britain and Italy. 2. second would be the defeat of France. 3. third and final would be the conquest of russia.

Answer 103

after a 13 year campaign in 1932

Answer 104

1933 january

Answer 105

1935 april

Answer 106

october 1935

Answer 107

october 1936

Answer 108

1936 october

Answer 109

september 1937

Answer 110

november 1937

Answer 111

december 1937

Answer 112

april 1938

Answer 113

september 1938

Answer 114

1939 february

Answer 115

april 1939

Answer 116

1st september 1939

Answer 117

sept to oct 1940

Answer 118

December 1941

Answer 119

the character of the italian people must be module dby fighting

Answer 120

glorification fo war for its own sake, pursuit of imperial expansion and a move away from diplomacy and cooperation

Answer 121

overvaluing the lira investment from usa withdrawn Italian farmers were badly affected from the collapse in grain prices industry declined unemployment at 2 million bank of Italy on brink of collapse

Answer 122

more internention and bailouts for industrialists. Istitutio Mobiliare Italiano in 1931 gave financial support to the banks and industries. allocation of raw materials brought under government control and direct control of major industries increased. istitutuo per la ricostruzione industrial set up in 1933 and took over shares of companies nad banks. as a result, Italy developed the largest public sector in Europe wages that had already fallen before the depression were cut further

Answer 123

20% of the capital of key companies.

Answer 124

he managed to rpevent social nad political upheaval and retained power but now he needed to distract the Italian public from italys internal economic problems by fostering the revolutionary spirit that he and fascim espoused. foreign policy would now need to be more dynamic and inspirational.

Answer 125

28 billion lire

Answer 126

dino grandi

Answer 127

he wanted to move away from anglophile policies and demonstrate Italian strength, and ultimately ready the armed forces for the coming war. he believed italy should not trust ht league of nations.

Answer 128

his son in law ciano. initally uspported closer links with Germany but then became disillusioned and argued against the pact of steel, signed in may 1939. lost facour so ultimately supported war

Answer 129

smaller nations should have less say ing great power relations, unlike their role in the LON.

Answer 130

britian, france, germany and italy.

Answer 131

when naxi supporters murdered the chancellor mussolini immediately mobilized his troops to the border to deter any attempt by hitter to achieve anschluss

Answer 132

to prevent any future changes to the European settlement. they were concerned about hitlers rearmamemnt and violation of the treaty of Versailles. signed the final declaration the stresa conference in April 1935

Answer 133

when britain broke the anglo german naval agreement in june 1935

Answer 134

lack of support from poltiica lelites, includign the king, for a shift in Italian foreign policy that had traditionally supported britian. these groups were generally hostile to the germans. the economic situation had also influenced foreign policy. Italian industrua nd agriculture had not fulfilled mussolinis foal of autarky and the economy would not be able to sustain a general war. the limited war in Abyssinia and the intervention in spain was a drain on resources.

Answer 135

consolidate il duce rally support behind the regime Italian nationalsit ambitions to build an emprie and to become a great imperial power like britain and France. wanted a roman empire glorification of war would give Mussolini an easy defeat as abysinia were not modernised needed to distract from Italian economic problems

Answer 136

Italy planned to annex Abyssinia, despite previously signing a treaty of friendship and supporting its entry into the League of Nations. Tensions escalated after a clash at the Wal Wal oasis in 1934, and Mussolini ordered his forces to conquer Abyssinia. Italy launched a full-scale invasion in October 1935, which resulted in the defeat of the Abyssinian army and the annexation of Abyssinia in May 1936. The League of Nations condemned Italy as the aggressor and imposed limited sanctions. Britain and France attempted to offer Italy half of Abyssinia to end the conflict, but public pressure forced them to withdraw the offer. The war resulted in a surge in nationalist sentiment in Italy, even receiving support from the Italian Queen Mother.

Answer 137

war had been won quite quickly and cost only 1000 Italian casualties. mussolini had demonstrated military might and he had expanded the empire. peak of his foreign policy success.

Answer 138

mussolini has not just founded an empire in ethiopoa. he has made something more. he has created a new italy.

Answer 139

exposed weakness of lon caused italy to move away from good relations with britaina nd france, and closer to Germany. mussolini told the german ambassador in jan 1936 that he had no objections to austriabecoming a german satellite.

Answer 140

german rearmament of the rhineland

Answer 141

Zara Steiner highlights another reason: Mussolini saw in the Spanish War an opportunity to fashion the "new Italy" and "the new Italian". "There is only one way to create a warlike people". the Duce claimed, "to have ever greater masses who have waged war and ever greater masses who want to go to war". - Steiner, 2011

Answer 142

When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, Mussolini was quick to respond to requests for assistance from General Franco's Nationalist forces. Italy sent more aid to the Nationalists than any other country, including weapons, ammunition, and troops. Over the course of the war, Italy provided around 75,000 troops, along with tanks and aircraft.

Answer 143

Mussolini's primary goal was to prevent the spread of communism in Spain and to prevent the establishment of a left-wing government at the mouth of the Mediterranean. He also hoped to gain naval bases in the Balearic Islands and weaken France, which had close ties with the left-wing Popular Front government that Franco was seeking to overthrow.

Answer 144

However, unlike in the Abyssinian campaign, Mussolini lacked a clear plan for the Spanish intervention. He also did not have the same level of popular support, as many Italians were opposed to the war and did not see it as directly benefiting their country.

Answer 145

The war lasted much longer than Mussolini had anticipated, and Italy's involvement proved to be a costly and draining experience. The conflict drained Italy's military and economic resources and caused tension with other European powers, particularly France and Britain. Ultimately, the Nationalists emerged victorious in 1939, but the intervention did not bring about the desired strategic gains for Italy.

Answer 146

high economic cost: lira devalued and lsot half its foreign currency reserves. total cost of war 14 billion and led to Italy increasing trade with Germany 1/3 of italys arms stocks consumed by the war. although Italy had helped secure a right wing regime in eurpe, and was on the winning side, Italy'smilitary weakness had been exposed. italian submarine attacks on supply ships led to increased tension between Italy and France and Britain. general franco maintainedhis independence and spain did not become an italian satellite state. italy drew closer to germany.

Answer 147

In November 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany and Japan, forming the group that would become the Axis Powers. The pact was directed against the Communist International and stated that the signatories would consult on measures to "safeguard their common interests" in the event of a Soviet attack. Italy's new relationship with Germany was most apparent regarding Austria. Mussolini had protected Austrian independence since WWI, but in 1938, he accepted Anschluss when Hitler invaded Austria. This represented a major shift in the Italian position on Austria, which was not popular domestically. In December 1937, Italy left the League of Nations.

Answer 148

During the Sudetenland crisis in September 1938, Mussolini positioned himself as a mediator and played a key role in the Munich Agreement. However, it was evident that he was subservient to Hitler and had simply put forward Hitler's own plan for the Sudetenland. Mussolini used the Munich Agreement to demonstrate the weakness of Britain and France and subsequently instructed the Italian parliament to demand the annexation of Corsica, Nice, and Tunis from France in November 1938, believing that he could win a war against France with German support.

Answer 149

In April 1939, Italy invaded Albania, following Hitler's success in the invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia the previous month. Mussolini wanted to assert Italian strength, emulate Hitler's expansion, intimidate Yugoslavia, and pursue his ambition of dominating the Adriatic. Albania's King Zog attempted to resist the occupation, but Italy had a force of 100,000 men and 600 aircraft, while Albania had only 15,000 poorly equipped troops trained by the Italians. By the afternoon of the first day of fighting, all ports were in Italian hands, and King Zog and his family fled to Greece. Italy set up a Fascist government in Albania, and Mussolini later used Albania as a base to launch an invasion of Greece. The Albanian parliament deposed King Zog in absentia and voted to unite with Italy in "personal union". Albania withdrew from the League of Nations on 15 April 1939. The Italians then set up a Fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci. The Albanian foreign office was merged with the Italian foreign ministry, and the Albanian army was put under Italian command.

Answer 150

Italy had a force of 100,000 men and 600 aircraft, while Albania had only 15,000 poorly equipped troops trained by the Italians.

Answer 151

between italy and germany on 22 may 1939`

Answer 152

The Pact comprised two sections: the rst was a declaration of trust and cooperation between the two nations; the second, a secret protocol, fostered a union of military and economic policies.

Answer 153

The original intention had been to include Japan in the Pact but Japan had wanted the focus to be anti-Soviet, whereas Italy and Germany wanted the agreement aimed at Britain and France. (See pages 181–182 for more discussion of the Pact of Steel.)

Answer 154

When Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, he unleashed a general European War. During negotiations over the Pact of Steel, Mussolini had suggested that Italy would not be ready for a general war until 1943. Thus, when Hitler ignited war over Poland, Mussolini declared Italy a non-belligerent.

Answer 155

by invading albainia, they matched germanys dynamism, and strengthened his view that war strengthened a nation.

Answer 156

● Not to join the war was something of an embarrassment for the Fascist leader; it was contrary to his Fascist doctrine and at odds with his portrayal of condent and decisive leadership as Il Duce ● Mussolini did not want Italy to become a lesser rank power by staying neutral; he did not want to be “another Switzerland”. In April 1940, he said: “To make a people great [the country] must be sent into battle”. ● The war could give Mussolini the opportunity to radicalize the regime and to remove the inuence of conservatives and the Church. ● If Italy remained neutral and Germany won the war, Europe would be dominated by a Germany that would be hostile towards Italy because it had remained neutral. ● The war could bring territorial gains and perhaps control over the Mediterranean. motives were primarily economic, however, Germany had been a principal buyer of Italy’s food and textiles, and by August 1939 it owed Italy US $40 million. Italy received German coal in return and became dependent on it. This German coal – two thirds of the Italian supply – had to be delivered by sea. In March 1940, Britain blockaded all German coal ports.

Answer 157

In general, “left-wing” historians in Italy assert that Mussolini had an overtly aggressive foreign policy and expansionist aims. The “right-wing” historians, such as Renzo De Felice (Mussolini’s Italian biographer), argue that Italy did not have large-scale expansionist plans. He argues that, from the 1920s up to at least 1935, Mussolini wanted to get France’s agreement to establish Italy as a great power with an expanded empire in North Africa.To this end, he was advised to pursue the “policy of the pendulum” or, in other words, to be the decisive weight in European relations.

Answer 158

Taylor suggests that Mussolini had expansionist goals, but that there was a lot of conict between the foreign policies of Hitler and Mussolini. He argues, however, that Mussolini thought Hitler would agree to leave Austria independent and that Italy could then play France and Germany o against each other while gaining concessions from both.The problem was that Hitler intended to achieve Anschluss

Answer 159

Mussolini expanded the war in Europe in the Mediterranean and into North Africa. Italian forces invaded Egypt from the Italian colony of Libya, whilst another Italian force invaded Greece from Albania. However, both of these Italian offensives failed due to the British response. Mussolini’s failures meant Hitler’s forces were drawn into both the Balkans and North Africa. German forces took Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941, and forced an evacuation of British forces. Hitler’s forces, under General Rommel, had pushed the British back and advanced as far as El Alamein in Egypt by June 1942.

Answer 160

increase national pride consolidate domestic support for his regime revise the settlement of 1991-20 dominate the balkans dominate the meditteranean build an empire, livign space, expand territories in africa foster the spread of fascism

Answer 161

1933 january

Answer 162

februrary 1933`

Answer 163

october 1933

Answer 164

1934 january

Answer 165

1935 january

Answer 166

march 1935

Answer 167

1936 march

Answer 168

august 1936

Answer 169

november 1936

Answer 170

Britain was pre-occupied with economic crisis and events in the Far East. Worried about Japanese expansion, the safety of the British Empire was a top priority. Many British politicians considered the Treaty of Versailles unfair and supported some redress of "legitimate grievances." Right-wing politicians feared communist dictator Stalin and sympathized with Hitler. They saw Hitler as a buffer to the spread of communism from the East.

Answer 171

France was very concerned about the potential threat posed by Germany However, France was too weak to act on its own, especially after its 1923 intervention in the Ruhr failed France was politically divided, with a series of weak governments and major economic problems France lacked support from the USA or Britain in preserving the Versailles settlement To defend itself, France built a line of fortresses along the Maginot Line between 1929 and 1938 France developed alliances with countries on Germany’s eastern borders, including Poland and "The Little Entente" countries such as Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia.

Answer 172

France was very concerned about the potential threat posed by Germany However, France was too weak to act on its own, especially after its 1923 intervention in the Ruhr failed France was politically divided, with a series of weak governments and major economic problems France lacked support from the USA or Britain in preserving the Versailles settlement To defend itself, France built a line of fortresses along the Maginot Line between 1929 and 1938 France developed alliances with countries on Germany’s eastern borders, including Poland and "The Little Entente" countries such as Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia.

Answer 173

This was a series of treaties between Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, which were concluded from 1920 to 1921, and aimed to prevent Austria and Hungary from regaining territory lost after the First World War.

Answer 174

economic depression meant usa was unlikely to change its isolationaist stance

Answer 175

● The international economic situation was encouraging national insularity rather than collective security. ● The memories of the First World War were still acute, and the horror of this war made many determined to take any measures necessary to prevent another war. ● The need to avoid another war was reinforced by the military weakness of Britain and France at this time. ● Britain and France were unable to agree on a common policy for dealing with Hitler. ● The League of Nation’s perceived failure to deal effectively with Japanese expansion in Manchuria was a blow to both the Washington System and to the League itself. ● The revision of the Treaty of Versailles had already begun; Britain and France evacuated the Rhineland in 1929–30 and German reparation payments were effectively cancelled at the Lausanne Conference of 1932.

Answer 176

even allowing for the breakdown of the international regime, Hitler moved with a speed and ultimate purpose that clearly distinguished him from his predecessors — Steiner, 2011: 95

Answer 177

Hitler had to be cautious in pursuing his aims due to fear of an international backlash. He publicly claimed to desire peace and worked to defuse opposition. Over five years, Hitler undermined collective security by withdrawing Germany from multilateral commitments. He also isolated France by undermining existing alliances and negotiated alliances with Britain and Italy. Hitler effectively challenged the Treaty of Versailles, increasing the prestige and power of his dictatorship and Germany within Europe.

Answer 178

Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations called for national armaments to be reduced to the lowest point consistent with national safety. An international conference for disarmament was not organized until 1932. When the Disarmament Conference finally convened in 1933, there was little consensus on how disarmament could be achieved. France was unwilling to disarm due to the new threat of Nazism on its borders. Britain and France did not agree on how Germany should be treated, with Britain prepared to make concessions to Germany. Previous German governments had requested parity of armaments, but France refused at the Disarmament Conference in 1933. Hitler pulled out of the Conference and the League of Nations, claiming they were part of a French conspiracy to keep Germany weak and incapable of self-defense. Hitler's withdrawal gave him the freedom to launch an assault on the rest of the Treaty of Versailles.

Answer 179

Poland, on Germany’s eastern border, was particularly vulnerable and, alarmed at the West’s failure to stop Germany rearming, entered into a 10-year Non-Aggression Pact with the German government in January, 1934.

Answer 180

For the moment, however, this pact suited Hitler. He was unable to take any action against Poland at this stage and, by signing the pact, he was securing his eastern frontier. It also weakened France’s security system in Eastern Europe. France had signed an alliance with Poland in 1921 and had hoped that this would keep pressure on Germany’s eastern borders. Germany had now broken out of the diplomatic encirclement that the French had attempted to impose on it. The pact also ended any chance of rapprochement between Czechoslovakia and Poland, thus further undermining the collective security system. Moreover, as this was an unpopular move in Germany, the Non-Aggression Pact looked to the international community like an act of statesmanship; it could be used to convince Britain and others that Germany was a peaceful nation.

Answer 181

Hitler preferred bilateral agreements to collective security agreements, as these could more easily be broken. He declared privately that “All our agreements with Poland have a temporary significance”.

Answer 182

In June 1934, Hitler failed to persuade Mussolini to support his position on Austria's unification as Mussolini wanted to keep Austria as a buffer state. Hitler supported the Austrian Nazi Party, which organized a campaign of intimidation and terrorism, culminating in the assassination of the Austrian Chancellor. Mussolini mobilized 100,000 troops to the Brenner pass in July 1934, causing Hitler to back down. Hitler was forced to play a waiting game on unification with Austria to avoid alienating Mussolini.

Answer 183

In 1935, the Saar territory held a plebiscite in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, giving the small coal-rich area the opportunity to return to Germany after being under French control since 1919. The result of the plebiscite was an overwhelming agreement (90.9% of the vote) in favor of returning to Germany, which was seen as a triumph for Hitler and an opportunity for Nazi propaganda to reinforce the growing power and strength of Germany and the popularity of the Nazi regime.

Answer 184

7 to21 divisions

Answer 185

In March 1935, Hermann Göring, one of Hitler’s ministers, revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe, which by this time had around 2,500 planes. Hitler justied this level of rearmament on the grounds that Britain and France had failed to disarm and that Germany needed to be able to protect itself against the growing Soviet Army.

Answer 186

In 1936, Hitler ordered the remilitarization of the Rhineland, an area that had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. This move allowed him to build fortifications to prevent an attack from France and to distract attention from economic problems in Germany. Mussolini's break with Britain and France over the Abyssinian crisis meant he did not oppose Hitler's takeover of the Rhineland. Hitler claimed the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty threatened Germany and violated the spirit of the Locarno Pact. This action reinforced the growing power and strength of Germany and Nazi propaganda.

Answer 187

Both Hitler’s generals and the German Foreign Ofce were hesitant about marching into the Rhineland, viewing it as a dangerous action likely to provoke a response from Britain and France. However, Hitler decided to take a gamble, hoping that the diplomatic disarray caused by the Abyssinian crisis would prevent Britain and France from taking any effective action. However, he later said, the 48 hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-wracking of my life. If the French had marched into the Rhineland, we would have had to withdraw with our tails between our legs. German troops moved into the Rhineland on 7 March 1936. In fact, this was not a surprise to the British and the French, who had received intelligence warnings that this was about to happen. However, no action was taken by either the British or the French to stop the remilitarization, despite the fact that the Germans invaded with a relatively weak military force.

Answer 188

The successful invasion was accompanied by a peace offer, which was again intended to make Hitler look as though he was a man of peace and to divert the attention of Britain and France away from his challenge to the post-war settlement. The offer included demilitarizing the Rhineland, providing Britain and France created similar zones on their sides of the frontier as well. He also suggested that he was interested in negotiating new security pacts with his neighbours and returning to the League of Nations.

Answer 189

Both sides appealed to the international community for help in this conict. General Franco led the Nationalists and he asked for help from Germany and Italy, while the Republican government hoped to get support from Britain, France and the Soviet Union.

Answer 190

t played a key role in transporting Franco’s troops from Morocco to Spain at the start of the conict, and German bombers of the Condor Legion caused havoc by attacking civilian centres, most notoriously Guernica in April 1937. German submarines also attacked government ships in the Mediterranean. Nevertheless, in contrast to Mussolini (see page 141), Hitler placed limits on the extent of German involvement.

Answer 191

● He wanted a friendly government in Spain that would supply Spanish mineral resources and also provide military bases for German submarines. ● He would be able to test out his air force and see the effects of air attacks on civilian populations. ● He was able to pose as the defender of European civilization against the Communist threat. ● A pro-Fascist government in Spain would further undermine French security.

Answer 192

● The war dragged on for three years, polarizing opinion in Europe. ● It reinforced suspicions between Britain and France on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other, thereby preventing a strong antiFascist alliance. ● It distracted the West, and Britain’s failure to take any strong action (see page 217) led Hitler to believe that he would not face further opposition to expansion in Eastern Europe.

Answer 193

The Spanish Civil War improved diplomatic relations between Hitler and Mussolini, culminating in the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis in October 1936. This was followed by the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in November of the same year, which indicated the beginning of the openly aggressive phase of Hitler's foreign policy. These agreements demonstrated that Germany was no longer isolated but an important player on the world stage. Hitler signed an agreement with Chancellor Schuschnigg of Austria, whereby Schuschnigg promised to pursue a policy "based on the principle that Austria acknowledges herself to be a German state" in return for a German commitment to non-intervention.

Answer 194

By 1936, rearmament was not progressing fast enough for Hitler. Indeed, the consumer economy was starting to struggle: there were shortages of butter and meat, as well as shortages of vital imports of raw materials and of foreign exchange. The economics minister, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, favoured spending less on armaments in order to enable more exports to be produced, thus encouraging foreign trade.

Answer 195

However, Hitler believed that Germany’s economic problems could only be solved by the acquisition of more land and living space. He decided to go all out for autarky, bringing the economy more closely under party control, in order to prepare for war. This was to be done via a Four Year Plan, which Hitler introduced in September 1936 under the leadership of Göring. Believing that this would make the pace of rearmament too fast and that it would cause an economic crisis, Schacht resigned. However, there is no doubt that Hitler was now in a strong position.

Answer 196

The conference marks the point at which the expansion of the Third Reich ceased to be latent and became explicit. — Wiliamson, 1995

Answer 197

"Following the Reichstag Fire and the Rohm crisis [Night of the Long Knives], the Blömberg-Fritsch affair was the third great milestone on the way to Führer absolutist power” (quoted in Darby, 2007).

Answer 198

1938 march

Answer 199

1938 september

Answer 200

1939 march

Answer 201

31srt march 1939

Answer 202

27 april 1939

Answer 203

12th august 1939

Answer 204

24th august 1939

Answer 205

25th august 1939

Answer 206

1st spetember 1939

Answer 207

3rd september 1939

Answer 208

● Germany reafrmed its recognition of Austria’s independence. ● Both powers agreed not to interfere in each other’s internal affairs. ● Austria would conduct a foreign policy consistent with it being a “German state”. In addition, secret clauses gave prominent Austrian Nazis, such as Arthur Seyss-Inquart, a role in the government.

Answer 209

After being submitted to two hours of abuse, Schuschnigg was forced to agree to a list of demands that included releasing all imprisoned pro-Nazi agitators, lifting the ban against the Nazi Party and appointing SeyssInquart as interior minister. Pro-Nazis were also to be made the ministers of war and of nance, and the economic systems of the two countries were to be assimilated. These demands would effectively end Austrian independence; Schuschnigg was told that if he did not agree, Hitler would march into Austria.

Answer 210

Schuschnigg attempted a desperate last action: he announced a plebiscite for 13 March 1938, in which Austrians were to vote on whether or not they wanted a “free and German, independent and social, Christian and united Austria”. Austrians could only answer “yes” or “no”; given the wording, along with the fact that Schuschnigg’s own political party was in charge of the plebiscite, there was a good chance that a Yes vote could be secured. This would then give him a chance to break free of his agreement with Hitler. Hitler, therefore, decided to act before this could happen. Mussolini gave his assurances that he would not object to Anschluss and Hitler mobilized his army. When Schuschnigg found that no help was coming from Italy, Britain or France, he resigned. Hitler marched into Austria on 12 March 1938.

Answer 211

Hitler, therefore, decided to act before this plebisicte could happen. Mussolini gave his assurances that he would not object to Anschluss and Hitler mobilized his army. When Schuschnigg found that no help was coming from Italy, Britain or France, he resigned. Hitler marched into Austria on 12 March 1938. On 13 March, apparently in a spur of the moment decision following an emotional visit to his home town of Linz, Hitler announced the incorporation of Austria into the Reich. This was subsequently conrmed by 99% of the population in a plebiscite on 10 April.

Answer 212

● Hitler considered Slavs to be untermenschen (racially and socially inferior). ● Many Czechs had resisted Austrian rule in the old Austro–Hungarian Empire and had fought for Russia during the First World War, rather than for Austria. ● Czechoslovakia was the only successful independent state created by the Versailles Settlement; it consisted of many different peoples and had therefore proved that ethnically diverse people could live together. ● One of the ethnic groups in the new Czechoslovakia was German. These Germans had formally lived in the Austro–Hungarian Empire and now lived in the area known as the Sudetenland, which bordered Germany (see its location on the map above). ● Czechoslovakia was an enthusiastic supporter of the League of Nations. ● Czechoslovakia was allied to France and Russia.

Answer 213

The Sudetenland, a mountainous and resource-rich area given to Czechoslovakia for prosperity and frontier strength, was home to 3.5 million Sudeten Germans who resented their position in Czechoslovakia and saw themselves as victims of discrimination. Konrad Heinlein led the Sudeten German Party, which was funded by Nazi Germany and demanded self-government and special rights. Hitler encouraged Heinlein's continual agitation and subversion. Initially, Hitler was reluctant to use force against Czechoslovakia, as many of his generals warned that Germany was not ready for war.

Answer 214

In 1936, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, which had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. This move allowed him to build fortifications to prevent a French attack and distract from Germany's economic problems. Hitler used the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty as an excuse for his actions. The improved relations between Hitler and Mussolini, resulting from the Spanish Civil War, culminated in the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936 and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in 1937. These agreements demonstrated Germany's importance on the world stage.

Answer 215

Hitler changed his mind on taking action against Czechoslovakia due to the May Crisis. Rumors circulated that Germans were preparing for military action near the Czech border, leading to partial mobilization by the Czech government and warnings from Britain and France. The rumors were unfounded, but Hitler felt humiliated by having to deny them. Hitler told his generals in Operation Green that he had decided to attack Czechoslovakia. Throughout the summer of 1938, tensions increased in the Sudetenland due to violence by Sudeten Germans on Hitler's instructions. Czech President Edvard Beneš agreed to all demands for self-government, but Hitler told Sudeten German leader Konrad Heinlein to reject the offer. The German press fueled anti-Czech sentiment with images of supposed ill-treatment of Sudeten Germans.

Answer 216

following czecholovakia declaring martial law and the may crisis

Answer 217

At this meeting, it was agreed that the Sudeten German areas of Czechoslovakia should be transferred to Germany. Chamberlain persuaded his Cabinet and the French to agree to this deal. The Czechs nally agreed after two days of persuasion.

Answer 218

Chamberlain ew to Godesberg to tell Hitler the good news, but Hitler was furious. He wanted an excuse for a war with Czechoslovakia, not a peaceful handover of the Sudetenland. He insisted that the demands of the Hungarians and the Poles for territory in Czechoslovakia should also be met, and that German troops should be allowed to occupy the Sudetenland on 28 September. It now seemed as though war was inevitable. The Czechs rejected Hitler’s terms and the French said they would support Czechoslovakia. As mentioned previously, the Czechs had good defences and a strong army. They hoped that with the help of their allies, France and the Soviet Union, they could resist a German attack.

Answer 219

With Britain and France now showing that they were prepared to ght, and with his own generals pointing out that Germany was not yet ready for war, Hitler agreed to a further conference. Mussolini stepped in as a mediator to prevent war, and a Four Power Conference was held in Munich. Here, a plan presented by Mussolini (though written by Hitler!) was agreed on.

Answer 220

* The German occupation of the Sudetenland would take place by 1 October and an international commission would determine a provisional new frontier by 10 October. The international commission would also supervise plebiscites in areas of dispute. * Czechs would be allowed to leave and Germans allowed to join the Sudeten territories (neither the plebiscites nor the transfer of populations actually happened). * Poland was to be given Teschen. * Hungary was to get South Slovakia. * Germany, along with the other powers, guaranteed the independence of the rest of Czechoslovakia.

Answer 221

The Czechs were told that if they resisted this agreement they would receive no help from Britain or France, even though France had guaranteed the Czech borders at Locarno. The Czechs therefore had no option but to agree. Beneš resigned a few days later. Czechoslovakia lost 70% of its heavy industry, a third of its population and both the natural mountainous defences and the man-made fortications of the Sudetenland. Slovakia and Ruthenia were given self-government for internal affairs, though were still ultimately controlled from Prague.

Answer 222

Hitler changed his mind about taking action against Czechoslovakia after the May Crisis in 1938. He encouraged the Slovaks to cause disruption and ask for complete independence, which led to Slovakia proclaiming full independence and asking for German protection. Hitler saw the Munich Agreement as a stepping stone to the liquidation of the Czech state. After the new Czech President, Emil Hacha, moved troops into Slovakia to crush the agitation, Tiso proclaimed full independence for Slovakia and asked for German protection. Hacha asked to see Hitler in the hope of saving Czechoslovakia, but he was forced to sign over Bohemia and Moravia to Hitler. On 15 March 1939, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. This action led to a change in British policy towards Germany.

Answer 223

Hitler's next target after Czechoslovakia was Poland. Poland had been dismantled as a country in the 18th century and recreated as a nation at Versailles, which was resented by Germans. The Polish Corridor, which included the city of Danzig, was a sore spot for Germans as it split East Prussia from the rest of Germany. Germany proposed to Poland that Danzig should be returned to Germany and it should have direct access to East Prussia, but Poland refused, seeing it as an attack on its territory.

Answer 224

In March 1939, Hitler demanded Lithuania to hand over Memel, a city with a substantial German population, and Lithuania complied. Britain offered a guarantee to Poland on March 30, 1939, promising to lend them support in the event of a German attack. Hitler was angry about the Anglo-Polish Treaty and responded by declaring the Anglo-German Naval Agreement invalid and ending the 1934 Non-Aggression Pact with Poland. Hitler ordered his Chief of Staff to prepare for the attack on Poland, known as Operation White, which was a limited war plan rather than a wider war involving Britain and France.

Answer 225

Mussolini's invasion of Albania increased international tensions Britain and France issued guarantees to Greece and Romania Germany supported Mussolini's action in Albania Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel with Germany (found he needed hitler's support after the hostile reactions of britian and france) The pact stipulated that each power would aid the other in hostilities "contrary to its wishes and desires" Mussolini was not ready for a full-scale conflict and privately made it clear to Hitler that Italy would not be ready for war for another three or four years.

Answer 226

s, “War for [Hitler] was no conventional military conict. It represented the decisive step towards the fullment of his ‘idea’, the accomplishment of his ‘mission’” (Kershaw, 1991: 134).

Answer 227

In 1939, both the Western democracies and Hitler approached the Soviet Union for an alliance. An alliance with the Soviet Union was highly desirable for Hitler to secure Soviet neutrality in a war with Poland and prevent a two-front conflict. The Soviet Union initially favored an alliance with Britain and France but the Western democracies were suspicious of a communist government and worked to appease Hitler. Stalin renewed a proposal of a military alliance with the West following Hitler's occupation of Prague but negotiations dragged on and both sides ultimately distrusted each other. On August 24, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact, pledging neutrality in the event of either nation being attacked by a third party. The pact included a secret protocol dividing Northern and Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence.

Answer 228

free hand in poland avoid fighting a war on two fronts valuabel raw materials

Answer 229

● It would keep the Soviet Union out of a war. This was important as it faced a threat in the East from Japan, and the army was weakened after Stalin’s purges (see glossary box). ● There was always the hope that Germany and the West would weaken each other in the war and that the Soviet Union would emerge as the strongest nation. ● He got considerable territorial gains from the pact: half of Poland and the opportunity to take over Finland and the Baltic States. ● The Soviet Union could keep trading with Germany: Germany was to send mechanical goods to the Soviet Union in return for raw materials and foodstuffs (see Source B below for the importance of this to Germany).

Answer 230

he never thought they would declare war

Answer 231

- Hitler delayed his attack on Poland until 1 September, hoping to cause division between Britain and Poland. - He proposed a last-minute agreement to Britain, which was not accepted, and the Poles refused further negotiation. - Mussolini proposed a conference to resolve the crisis, but Hitler wanted war and did not want to wait for peace initiatives. - Germany claimed that one of its wireless stations near the Polish border had been attacked by Poles on 31 August, using it as an excuse for war. - In reality, SS soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms staged the attack and left behind bodies of criminals dressed in Polish uniforms to make it appear authentic. - German troops invaded Poland and bombed Warsaw on 1 September 1939.

Answer 232

On 3 September, the British government presented an ultimatum to Germany to call off the attack by 11.00am. When no response had been received by this time, Britain and France declared war. Hitler hoped that the war on Poland would remain a localized affair; in fact, he had unleashed the most destructive war of all time. A

Answer 233

- attack on poland - poles quickly defeated in blitzkreig style of war - germany could now transfer most of theri forces to the west

Answer 234

Hitler's troops occupied Denmark and landed at Norwegian ports in April 1940 Hitler's tactical skill and luck played a role in his success Distractions and differences of other powers also contributed to his success Hitler was able to combine "consistency in aim" with "opportunism and improvisation" in his foreign policy Hitler achieved his aim of destroying the Treaty of Versailles, uniting Germans, and gaining more Lebensraum He did not achieve his aim of gaining Britain and Italy as allies Germany attacked Holland, Belgium, and France simultaneously and achieved swift victories Paris was captured on 14th June and France surrendered on 22nd June Battle for Britain took place during the summer and autumn of 1940, with the aim of securing control of the air over the English Channel Hitler switched to bombing London and other British cities, hoping to break the morale of the British Operation Barbarossa was launched against the Soviet Union in June 1941, with the aim of achieving lebensraum in the East The invasion of the Soviet Union ensured that the war would go on for much longer and that Hitler would eventually be defeated.

Answer 235

1920 january

Answer 236

1931 september

Answer 237

1932 november

Answer 238

Italy sends troops to its border with Austria to prevent Hitler’s attempts at Anschluss

Answer 239

1935 april

Answer 240

1933 january

Answer 241

august 1935

Answer 242

october 1935

Answer 243

7th october 1935

Answer 244

11th october 1935

Answer 245

november 1935

Answer 246

december 1935

Answer 247

1936 january

Answer 248

februaray 1936

Answer 249

britian and france set up no nintervention commitee

Answer 250

The USA passes a joint resolution outlawing the arms trade in Spain

Answer 251

decemebr 1937

Answer 252

1938 april

Answer 253

september 1938

Answer 254

march 1939

Answer 255

april 1939

Answer 256

1 september 1939

Answer 257

3 september 1939

Answer 258

septemebr - october

Answer 259

1941 march

Answer 260

diplomatic policy of making concessions to nations in order to avoid confict. Appeasement failed to prevent the outbreak of war and came to be seen as a weak and dishonourable policy. It allowed both Mussolini and Hitler to get away with territorial demands, which encouraged Hitler to ask continuously for more, resulting in the outbreak of war in 1939. However, for most of the inter-war years, appeasement was seen as a positive idea, and as part of a long-standing tradition of trying to settle disputes peacefully

Answer 261

The Franchise Act of 1918 increased the number of voters in Britain from 8 million to 21 million, including women over 30 years of age, and from 1928, the age was lowered to 21. so gov were more likely to tak enote of public opinion, which was against war and infavour of collective security. horror of ww1. anti war feeling increasing ideas that tov was harsh and it was not all germanys fault lack of alternative policy weakened economy defence priprities impact of neveille chamberlain

Answer 262

for.sec. eden resigned in feb 1938 churchill called for rearmament to be stepped up and vehmently opposed concessions to germany. supported a grand alliance fo the anti fascist powers. duff cooper resigned in rotest of munich agreeement david low cartoonist

Answer 263

● military preparation sufcient to repulse air attacks ● the preservation of trade routes for the supply of food and raw materials ● the defence of the Empire ● the defence of Britain’s allies.

Answer 264

France faced huge debts after World War I and had suffered economically from the fighting on its land, with about 10% being laid to waste, which had an impact on industrial and agricultural resources. The French population wanted Germany punished and permanently weakened to prevent any future German attack. When the USA failed to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations, the French felt abandoned. When Britain showed some sympathy with the view that Germany had been treated too harshly at Versailles, the French were appalled at this apparent collapse of the Anglo-American guarantee of the post-war settlement. The frequent changes of government and ideological conflicts in France in the 1930s meant that it was unable to take any action against Germany. There was a conflict between France's foreign policy and its military planning. Despite a series of guarantees to the states of Eastern Europe, which would have required France to demonstrate some offensive capability, its military planning in the 1930s was entirely defensive. When Britain decided on a policy of appeasement in the 1930s, France had to follow its strongest ally's line.

Answer 265

● It lacked the credibility and economic power of its founding nation, the USA. ● Its key organ of power was the Council, which was led by Britain, France, Italy and Japan, with Germany joining in 1926. The latter three countries were “revisionist” powers who wanted to revise the Treaty of Versailles. ● The Soviet Union was not a member until September 1934. ● The League’s structure and organization was inefcient. ● It was impotent in the face of the aggressive military fascist states, and each time it failed to act effectively it lost more authority

Answer 266

wanted to be free to engage in trade and investment globally and wished to avoid being draw in in to conflicts that were not in its own intersets.

Answer 267

came at the Munich Conference in September 1938. Despite its assistance pact with Czechoslovakia and the territorially strategic importance of that country to the Soviet Union, Stalin was not invited to the Munich Conference.

Answer 268

Both France and Britain had attempted to keep Mussolini on their side to contain German ambitions, and at the Stresa Front in 1935, the French had given Mussolini the impression that they would tolerate Italian expansion in East Africa. Britain had been silent on the matter at the conference, but when Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden went to Rome in June 1935, he offered a plan that would accommodate Italian expansionist plans. However, the Italians rejected the plan as they perceived that Britain wanted to accommodate them. When Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in October 1935, there was widespread international public outrage and condemnation from the League of Nations. British public opinion was against the invasion and in favor of action by the League, but the League proved ineffective in dealing with the crisis.

Answer 269

on 6th december 1935, following the walwal incident, Abyssinian Emperor Haile Selassie asked the League of Nations to arbitrate; however the League’s arbitration committee found neither side responsible. On 17 March 1935, following a large build-up of Italian forces in East Africa, Emperor Haile Selassie appealed directly to the League, as a member state, for its support. The Italian mobilization continued and on 11 May Selassie appealed to the League again. On 20 May, the League held a special session to discuss the crisis and on 19 June Selassie requested League observers be sent to the region. Talks between ofcials from Italy and Abyssinia broke down at The Hague.

Answer 270

On 7 January 1935, a Franco–Italian agreement was made. In return for Italian support to contain Hitler, France gave Italy parts of French Somaliland, improved the ofcial status of Italians living in Tunisia and tacitly allowed Mussolini to do as h

Answer 271

25th july 1935

Answer 272

On 7 October, the League duly found Italy the aggressor and began the process of imposing sanctions; however, this process was slow and the sanctions were limited. They did not embargo key war materials, such as coal, steel and oil, and the sanctions were not carried out by all members of the League. The British government had not wanted to implement harsh sanctions as Britain wanted to revive the Stresa Front and to maintain good relations with Mussolini. However, the British government was also under pressure to uphold the authority of the League.

Answer 273

drawn up to end the conflict and pacify mussolini by givign him most of abyssinnia. Selassie would receive access to the sea. However, the plan was leaked in the French press. Public opinion in both Britain and France was outraged by this apparent duplicity and demanded support for the League’s policy. The British and French governments were forced to denounce the pact and sanctions continued. Laval and Hoare resigned.

Answer 274

The Hoare–Laval pact sealed the fate of the League of Nations in 1935. It had been exposed as a sham. The attention of Britain and France was drawn away from East Africa and closer to home when Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936. France was prepared to let Mussolini complete his conquest in return for his support against Hitler, and the French would not support any further action regarding sanctions. Selassie ed on 2 May, and the Abyssinian capital, Addis Ababa, fell to Italian forces. However, there was no ofcial surrender by Abyssinia and a guerrilla war continued against the Italians. Selassie made pleas for support from the League and on 30 June, despite the jeering of Italian journalists, he made a powerful speech criticizing the international community for its inaction. He moved for a resolution to deny recognition of the Italian conquest. He concluded with the ominous and prophetic statement,“It is us today. It will be you tomorrow”. Despite Selassie’s impassioned speech, his resolution failed; on 4 July, the League voted to end its sanctions, which were lifted on the 15 July. The new “Italian Empire” was recognized by Japan on 18 November 1936 in return for recognition of its own occupation of Manchuria. In 1938, Britain and France recognized Italian control of Abyssinia, although the USA and USSR refused to recognise the Italian Empire. It had fatally undermined the League of Nations as a credible body for dealing with aggressor states. It also ended the Stresa Front. Both France and Britain believed after this conict that appeasement was the only route they could take to avoid a conict with Hitler’s Germany. Thus the crisis had shifted the balance of power to Germany’s advantage. Mussolini would now move towards a full alliance with Hitler.

Answer 275

President Roosevelt sent Mussolini a personal message on 18 August 1935. He stated that the US government and people believed that the failure to arrive at a peaceful settlement in East Africa would be a calamity and would lead to adverse effects for all nations. However, the United States would not take any direct action, as was made clear in a radio address by Secretary of State Hull on 6 November 1935. In this broadcast, he said it was the USA’s duty to remain aloof from disputes and conicts with which it had no direct concern.

Answer 276

Britain and France condemned Italy's invasion of Albania and Chamberlain no longer trusted the dictators. Chamberlain guaranteed Greek borders with British military support, but did not agree to Churchill's suggestion of sending in the Royal Navy. Mussolini was surprised at the appeasers' commitment to Greece.

Answer 277

During World War II, Italy joined the war in June 1940 and invaded Egypt and Greece from Albania. In response, the British launched Operation Compass and pushed Italian forces out of Egypt, defeating them at Beda Fomm in Libya in February 1941. The British Navy also sank half of the Italian fleet in Taranto and occupied Crete.

Answer 278

Following Germany’s withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in 1933 (see page 157), Britain worked hard to get Germany back into the conference. It proposed that Germany should be allowed to have an army of 200,000 (rather than the 100,000 stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles), that France should also reduce its army to 200,000, and that Germany should be allowed an air force half the size of the French air force.

Answer 279

In 1935, Germany's rearmament and introduction of conscription caused concern among other powers. A conference was held in Stresa, Italy, attended by the prime ministers and foreign ministers of France, Britain, and Italy to protest Hitler's actions and reaffirm their commitment to the Treaty of Versailles. However, France's conclusion of the Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Treaty with Russia and Britain's unwillingness to enter a naval race with Germany led to the downfall of the united front. Britain's agreement to limit the German fleet to 35% of the British fleet in the Anglo-German Naval Agreement allowed Germany to triple its navy's size, and the restrictions on the German navy under the Treaty of Versailles were set aside.

Answer 280

In 1936, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles and Locarno Treaties by marching into the Rhineland. France was unable to respond as their government was a "caretaker" government and the divisions in French society made a clear response impossible. The French army's general staff exaggerated the number of German forces, making a response seem even more difficult. France looked to Britain for a response, but Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's government also did not want to contemplate war due to overstretched military commitments and not seeing Hitler's actions as particularly threatening. Hitler offered negotiations at the same time as invading, making it easier to aim for a settlement rather than confronting him directly. Foreign Minister Anthony Eden suggested negotiating for the surrender of their rights in the demilitarized zone rather than fighting for it. Failure to stop Hitler at this point is often seen as a turning point, the last chance to stop him without war. However, at the time, political and public opinion were in favor of peace and negotiating with Germany.

Answer 281

June 1936.

Answer 282

3 members Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union

Answer 283

● It focused on preventing aid to the Republic and allowed the Nationalists, rather than the Republicans, to use Gibraltar as a communications base. ● In December 1936, Britain signed a trading agreement with the Nationalists that allowed British companies to trade with the rebels. ● Franco, not the Spanish republicans, was able to get credit from British banks.

Answer 284

In June 1936, a Popular Party government was elected in France with similar views to the Republican government in Spain. French Prime Minister Leon Blum wanted to support the Spanish government to prevent a right-wing regime from joining Italy and Germany to encircle France. Blum feared opposition if he directly intervened and so came up with the idea of non-intervention, which all European countries would commit to. British Prime Minister Baldwin's government agreed with the French plan, but for different motives. The British government believed the Nationalists would probably win the war and did not want to make an enemy of General Franco. British business interests in Spain also feared financial risks if Franco lost and a socialist or communist government took over. They supported Franco's tough anti-union position.

Answer 285

● France was paralysed by an internal political crisis and did not even have a government at the time of Anschluss. Ministers threatened to call up reservists to strengthen France’s army but needed Britain’s support, which was not forthcoming. ● Italy was now increasingly dependent on German friendship and refused to respond to Chancellor Schuschnigg’s appeals for help. ● The League of Nations was discredited after the Abyssinian affair and Anschluss was not even referred to the League for discussion. ● In Britain, there was a feeling that Germany’s union with Austria was inevitable. Chamberlain made a statement in the House of Commons in which he condemned Germany’s actions and the way in which Anschluss had taken place, but also stated, “the hard fact is … that nothing could have arrested this action by Germany unless we and others with us had been prepared to use force to prevent it”.

Answer 286

Following Anschluss, it was clear to Britain and France that Czechoslovakia would be the focus of Hitler’s next foreign policy moves. France had two treaties with Czechoslovakia, signed in 1924 and 1925, which committed France to assisting Czechoslovakia in the event of a threat to their common interests. However, the French also saw that they were in no position to keep to these treaty obligations. They argued that Czechoslovakia could not be defended, and French Prime Minister Daladier and Foreign Minister Bonnet were only too happy to follow Britain’s lead in nding a way out of a military showdown with Germany.

Answer 287

Many British politicians had sympathy with Czechoslovakia, as it had survived as a democracy for a longer period than the other new states in central and eastern Europe. However, Chamberlain did not believe that Czechoslovakia was worth ghting for. He saw Czechoslovakia as a “highly articial” creation and one that was ultimately unsustainable. He had some sympathy with the Sudeten Germans and believed that he could organize a peaceful and negotiated handover of the Sudetenland to Germany.

Answer 288

Britain and France worked hard to nd a diplomatic solution. Following Hitler’s speech of 12 September 1938 at the Nuremberg Rally (see page 176), Chamberlain decided to seize the initiative and to y to meet Hitler in Germany. This was a radical move in the world of diplomacy, as at this time prime ministers did not y abroad to meet other leaders one to one. This was the rst time that Chamberlain had own; as historian David Reynolds has pointed out, it also marked the rst of the 20th century summits between world leaders. At the meeting, Hitler demanded that all areas of Czechoslovakia in which Germans comprised over 50% of the population should join Germany. This would be supervised by an international commission. Chamberlain agreed, but said that he would have to get the agreement of the Czechs and the French rst. Chamberlain privately remarked that, In spite of the hardness and ruthlessness I thought I saw in his face, I got the impression that here was a man who could be relied upon when he had given his word. Over the following week, Chamberlain was able to get agreement for this deal from the British Cabinet and the French government, despite the fact that this would mean ignoring their alliance with Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovakian government, led by President Edvard Beneš, was told that, if these proposals were rejected, the Czechs would have to face Germany on their own. Czechoslovakia accepted the plan on 21 September 1938. On 22 September, Chamberlain ew back to Germany, expecting to have a discussion at Bad Godesberg about the proposals that had previously been discussed and were now agreed upon. However, Hitler now said that the previous proposals did not go far enough. He wanted the claims of Hungary and Poland to Czech territory met and he wanted to occupy the Sudetenland no later than 1 October. Back in Britain, many of Chamberlain’s colleagues rejected the Godesberg proposals. France now said it would honour its commitments to Czechoslovakia; the Czechs said that the new proposals were unacceptable. All countries started preparing for war. In Britain, trenches were dug in London’s parks and 38 million gas masks were distributed. Hitler agreed to a third conference, which was to be chaired by Mussolini. As you can see in the Pathé News clip below, this last hope for peace was greeted with much enthusiasm in Britain. Neither the Czech president, Edvard Beneš, nor the Soviet leader, Stalin, was invited to the conference, which agreed to give the Sudetenland to Germany (see page 178 for full details of the Munich Agreement). For Chamberlain, however, the highlight of the conference, was securing from Hitler a joint declaration that Britain and Germany would only deal with problems through negotiation and would not attempt to use force. For Chamberlain, this meant “peace in our time” (though this was a phrase that he later said he regretted using). There was much relief in Britain that war had been averted. The British press mostly supported Chamberlain’s policy and Chamberlain had support from the majority of his party. However, even at the time, there was criticism of the agreement.

Answer 289

Hitler’s takeover of the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, caused great shock and outrage in Britain. It was now clear that Hitler’s aims were not limited; he had broken a signed agreement and his invasion of Czechoslovakia could not be justied by any claim to be uniting Germans. There was a shift of opinion in Britain, and Chamberlain was put under pressure to take a rmer stand against Hitler.

Answer 290

Britain and France offered guarantees to Poland on March 31, 1939, stating they would come to its aid if it was attacked unprovoked. Poland was controversial due to its right-wing military dictatorship, anti-Semitic views, and expansionist actions. The guarantees to Poland acted as a warning to Hitler and allowed Britain to take direct action against aggression. Britain and France also gave guarantees to Greece and Romania after Mussolini invaded Albania on April 7, 1939. Britain negotiated an agreement with Turkey for mutual assistance in the Mediterranean area. Both Britain and France increased military preparations, and conscription was introduced in April 1939. The Pact of Steel strengthened military collaboration between Italy and Germany. By 1939, Britain and France were in a stronger military position and could take a firmer stand against Hitler. Air defense and the introduction of radar in Britain were near completion, and the rearmament program was set to peak in 1939-40, making Britain on roughly equal terms with Germany militarily.

Answer 291

● The Soviet army was militarily weak after Stalin’s purges. ● An alliance could alienate other Eastern European countries that Britain hoped to win over to form a diplomatic front against Germany. ● If Germany felt hemmed-in this could actually push it towards war. ● An alliance might push Poland, where Stalin was also distrusted, and Spain into an alliance with Hitler.

Answer 292

Richard Overy. Origins of the Second World War (2008). Talks continued throughout the summer, though both sides complained endlessly about the obduracy and deviousness of the other. In August the Soviet side insisted on full military discussions before any more progress could be made. Again the west showed what Molotov later condemned as a “dilatory” attitude. The British delegation was sent on a long trip by sea instead of by air. When it arrived the Soviet negotiators, all top military and political gures, found that the British had sent a junior representative, who had no powers to negotiate and sign an agreement. This slight deeply offended Soviet leaders. It was soon discovered that the western delegations had no real plans for the military alliance, and had not even secured agreement for the passage of Soviet forces across Poland to ght the German army. The discussions, which had begun on 12 August 1939, broke up after three days and were not revived.

Answer 293

British and French promises of aid to Poland were unable to offer help against the Nazi attack in September. During the phoney war, Britain prepared for air attack, debated aid to Finland, and laid mines to block Swedish iron ore to Germany. The failure of the Norway campaign contributed to Chamberlain's resignation, and Churchill took over as head of a coalition government. After France's defeat and Britain's evacuation from Dunkirk, Churchill refused Hitler's peace proposal and continued fighting. Britain attempted to find allies in 1940, but the USA remained isolationist and most Americans were against involvement in the war. By the end of 1940, Britain was suffering from Germany's U-boat campaign, but Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to Germany's defeat.

Answer 294

Each of the Axis powers were encouraged to embark on aggressive policies which were to bring the Soviet Union and the United States into what became in 1941 a global conict. While the survival of Britain prevented a total German victory, only the entry of the Soviet Union and the United States ensured the destruction of Nazi Germany and, for the most part, dictated the outcome of the world war and the shape of the post-war settlement. — Steiner, p. 1064

Answer 295

Sir Winston Churchill called the Second World War “the unnecessary war” that would not have taken place had Hitler been 227 CHAPT ER 2.7: THE INT ERNAT IONA L RE SPONS E TO GERMAN AGGRE SS ION, 1933–1940 stopped earlier, for example in 1936 over the Rhineland or in 1938 over Czechoslovakia. The “appeasers” were seen as weak, frightened men who had been afraid to stand up to Hitler and who had failed to realize that they were dealing with a calculating and ruthless dictator. By consistently giving in to Hitler’s demands they had encouraged his aggression and alienated the Soviet Union. Appeasement also meant that Hitler had gambled on that policy continuing when he invaded Poland, which was the trigger for war. When British Cabinet minutes and government papers became available 30–40 years after the end of the Second World War, it became clear that Chamberlain had been dealing with a complex situation. Given the difculties and constraints on Chamberlain – which included the realities of the British economy, British imperial commitments, as well as public opinion concerning the horror of another war and the injustices of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany – it becomes easier to see the forces that shaped appeasement as a policy.

Answer 296

AJP Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a clear plan for how he would carry out his foreign policy aims, and that he in fact reacted to the actions of the European leaders: the Fascist dictators would not have gone to war unless they had seen a chance of winning ... the cause of war was therefore as much the blunders of others as the wickedness of the dictators themselves — Taylor, 1961

Answer 297

Richard Overy argues that Chamberlain’s policy was, in fact, the right one for Britain at the time and paid off in the sense that Hitler was forced into a general European war earlier than he had planned, and at a date when Britain was in a stronger military position than it had been in 1938