authoritarian states Flashcards
Clark’s view on 1914 liberal Italy
lingua franca - growing national unity
national economy, roads, railways, institutions
“above all the state existed”
no agreement on basic idealogical educational social aims
Robson’s view on 1914 liberal italy
“guise for capitalist exploitation of the italian working class” - low wages and long hours
wealth spent on colonial ventures
weak and indecisive
no national spirit
graeme gill’s idea of an authoritarian dictatorship
secret police and repression
total politicisation of life and state
political controls over cultural and artistic life
static conservative ideaology
centralised economy
divided social structure/hierachy
leonard shaprio idea of an tolitarian dictatorship
single party states
dominant utopian ideaology
idolisation of one politicla figure
censorshipand propoganda to control (young) society
use of coercion and terror to ensure compliance
absolute state control and coordination of the economy
when did italy enter ww1
1915
when was the treaty of st germain that caused the mutilated victory in germany
1919
when was the bienno rosso
1919-1921
when did nationals sieze the port of fiume
1919
when was mussolini appointed pm
1922
when does mussolini set up a fascist state and end democracy
1926
when does mussolini set up a fascist state and end democracy
1926
when did italu become a unified state
1861
when was liberal italy
1870-1923
first king of italy
emmanuel II
weaknesses of liberal italy
political structure of new liberal state, trasformismo - corrupt
role of catholic hcurch and pope’s opposition to unification and political process
regional differences, economic and social poverty in south
land issues created by risorgimento and unification (terra irredenta), thwarted desire for empire and 1890s failure - abyssinia
what was terra irredenta
unredeemed land
land not included in the unification of italy process
italian speakers
led to nationalists being unhappy
called irredentists
describe italys desire for empire pre ww1
battle of adowa 1896 was humliating
libya 1911/12 italo-turkish war and then expensive to maintain
use of conscripts led to resentment
higher taxes
what was the pope’s view on italy following its unification
he instructed catholics not to participate in the new state (no voitng)
waht was the ppi
political party of the pope
what was trasformismo
the lack of party discipline leading politicians to fomr factions that made deals with eachother to alternate political control
how much of the populatuon could vote following the unification fo italy
2%
what political party was mussolini a part of originally
socialism
what does cassels say was the impact of socialism on the rise of fascism
not much effect
socialist party failed to provide a national organisation to take adv of the working class distress and spent time arguing within themselves
what does smith say was the impact of socialism on the rise of fascism
lacked leadership
violent and refused to collaborate
waitign for the bourgeois state and lost their revolutionary zeal
when was franz ferdinand assassinated
june 28th 1914
problems caused by the war
split between neutralists and interventionists and impacted politics
exp of fighting in the war for italy - failure and success
terra irredentta
econ and social hardship of soldiers and ? so liberalism struggling
politisication of italy, rise of socialism, leading to creation fo ppi and beginnings fo fascism
what was th psi
socialist party
italys performance in ww1
5mil conscripted
1917 battle of caporetto, defeat and gov blamed. low morale
oct 1918 battle of vittorio veneto, success against AH and italy saw this as v v successful despite AH having already surrended.
mutilated victory - treaty of st germain 1919
Hopes dashed – liberal politicians blamed for agreeing
* Italy received some land but not all
* Did not receive Dalmatia nor African colonies from the
losers (Germany) as others
* Fiume had not been promised by the secret Treaty of
London 1915 but in popular terms this port was expected.
* Led to D’Annunzio’s occupation of Fiume Sep 1919 – Dec
1920 – review what you know
* Irrendentists angry about terms of Treaty of St Germain
and proud of D’Annunzio – made Italian liberal politicians
look weak
econ and social hardships for italy following the war
Debt rose from 16b lire to 85b lire
* 1m wounded, 600,000 died
* Unemployment – returning soldiers
* Wages fell 25%
* bread riots 1917
* Massive inflation – destroyed savings
* Deepened north/south divisions
poltisiation of italy following ww1
1918 - full universal male suffrage – change to voting rights
* New political parties created – PPI, PSI
* Proportional representation in elections to parliament
* Elections in 1919 a key moment – p31 – was this a lost
chance for democracy?
* Rise of socialism – Bienno Rosso – the Two Red Years: see p
18/19 T&W and Hite and Hinton p30 – 31 – why was there
nota socialist revolution?
list the ways the economic condiitons of italy 1914-19 contirbtued to the emergence of authoriatrianism
nationalisation of all land
exploitation of working classes with debt, unemployment, drop in wages, NS divide
list the ways the political condiitons of italy 1914-19 contirbtued to the emergence of authoriatrianism
diagreeement between ppi and psi
giolitti failed to gain cooperation of both moderate catholic (?)
weak liberals ineffective
measures implemented by gov didnt satisfy and worried the elite
threat of socialist rev made many support fascism
no coherent socialist strategy
why was there not a socialist rev in early 1920s
harsher restrictions of banned strikes and increase in working hours
2 red years of strikes
underestimated workforce
government set up food committees
what other factors were present in italy in 19120s
religion/church - religious leadership interferring with political leadership
lack of socalist strategy
discontent (esp in working classes)
class divide
regional divide
lack of clear leadership
who supported the suffrage
socialists (this scared government and church)
give the actions of mussolini that led to fascism
march 1919 - fascio di combattimento set up by mussolini
april 1919 - mussolini’s il popolo d’italia
1920 summer - socalist threat (not to do with mussolini
1920 - mussolini shifts program to right to move away from socalist threat
1921 - mussolini refuses to join gov as junior partner
nov 1921 - mussolini forms national fascist party, which acknowledged the role of squads but recognised mussolini as the indespensible duce. must become more respectable to appeal to elites.
sept 1922 - mussolini announces his support for the monarchy
oct 1922 - mussolini invited to form a government
factors leading to rise of fascism in 1922
- Failure of Italian liberals (Risorgimento)
- Effects of war
- Post war economic crisis
- Mass demobilisation
- Post war effects frustrated nationalism
- Problems weren’t solved as no united parliament
- No political alliegance between war veterans and assorted middle class
- Italians that weren’t attached to liberalism or socialism comprised Fasism
=>rise of fascism from conservative and liberal compromise
impact of ww1 on right wing groups
groups like arditi formed
couldnt accept post war italy
icnreased support for right wing groups
who were the arditi and how did they organise themselves
a group of demobilised officers and troops who found it hard to accept post war italy. organised themselves in smaller groups. attatched socalists and trade unionists
describe the formation fothe fascio di combattimento
a combat or fighting group. groups like the arditi gathered together by mussolini
how well did the fascists do in the 1919 elections
not a single fascist candidate allowed (onyl about 4000 total)
was the march on rome a threat or announcement or action
liek an annoucnement or potential threat
deflation of lira
in 1920 the lira was worth only 1/3 of its 1913 value
FOR TO WHAT EXTENT DID ECONOMIC FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO RISE OF AUTHORITARIANISM IN ITALY
see essay planning in rise of fascism page
Clarke beliefs of rise and takeover of fascism
mussolini got power by chance
Blinkhorn beliefs of rise and takeover of fascism
formed a compromise with conservatives and liberals
caroccci beliefs of rise and takeover of fascism
rejection of democracy and demand to restore old balance of power
tannenbaum beliefs of rise and takeover of fascism
structured fascism had a tactical adv (north supported fascism and most attacked the liberals)
Kedward beliefs of rise and takeover of fascism
willingness and enthusiasm of the italian people
abse beliefs of rise and takeover of fascism
fascism was an accident that relied on the attitude of the kinf at the time
why was there confusion around fascist idealogy
no clear or consistent idealogy
mussolini started on theleft and moved to the extreme right
action and mood not doctrine
no coherent and unified idealogical root for fascism
evidence that suggests there is a cohesive ideology by the 1930s
enciclopedia italania,
doctrine of fascism
fascist international
describe mussolini’s early views
originally involed with socalist party
attacked church
opposed miliatirsm and liberalism
supported international solidarity instead
ww1
extremely nationalist
expelled from and then renounced socialism
what were the fascists beliefs in 1919
national syndicasm - republican, vaguely socialist, anti clerical
technocratic fascism - accepting and wholeheartedly embracing the industrial rev and modernism
rural fascism - anti urban, anti modern and anti industrial
conservative fascism - favoruing tradition, monarchy and church
nationalist fascism - favouring authoritarian political system and an aggressive foreign policy
why did the more radical aspects of mussolini’s beliefs get dropped after 1919
the fascists did poorly in the 1919 election
what changes had been made to fascism in 1921
cut down number of oppositions: capitalism, monarchy, catholic church
what issues did mussolini have with fascism and the ras after 1921 and what de he do about it
mussolini didnt like how squadristi violence might upset the elites and unite anti fasicsts
he signed a peace deal with the moderate socalists and main trade orgainsation.
angered the ras
resigned from pnf
who were the squadrismo
focus on cult of fascist violence over political policies and programmes
describe generic fascism
a populist
desire to destroy current system
beleif in a strong leader
belief in positive values of vitalism and violence
- roger griffin and stanley payne
describe generic fascism
a populist
desire to destroy current system
beleif in a strong leader
belief in positive values of vitalism and violence
- roger griffin and stanley payne
roger eatwell however focussed on the negative and reactionary aspects of the mvoement
rejection of liberal 18thc englightenment
what was proto fascism
incubatory period of fascism
free market capitalism
worked alongside an italian desire to return to glory of ancient rome
why did army and police officers unite for mussolini
turning ablind eye as opposed to strong leadership
admired violent action
how did landowners unite for mussolini
made workers stop strking through volence
why did political elites support mussolini
wanted strong leadershipa fter not reciveing it from socialists
powernesses against bienno rosso
squadristi kept things going
rc church appeasing to them more
in june 1919 what did the fascists promise
a republic with universal male and femal suffrage
eight hour working dy and guranteed minimum wage
workers participation in the management of industry through natuonal councils of labour
common education for all
liberty of opinion and consceicne
abolition fo obligatory military service
heavy and prgressive tax on capital, confiscation of unproductive income
the nationalisation of all arms and munitions factories. confiscations of 85% of war profits
confiscation of all property belonging to religious organisations
a foreign policy of peaceful competitiona mong the civilised nations
what did fascism promise in november 1921
no specific commitment on political structure except one designed to ensure italys historic destiny
eight hour working day with exceptions for agricultural and industrial requirements
corporation to express national solidarity and increase production
schools to train the governing elite and to procide italus future soldiers with physcial andmoral training
citizens freedom limited int he interests of the nation
obligatory miliatry serice
taxes proportional to income, not confiscatory
nationalised firms privatised, encouragement for national wealth through indiviual initiative
government spending cuts
no ref to church property
complete unification for italy with a major rol einthe med
what groups was mussolini keen to control
- King
- Parliamentary process
- PSI
- Trade unions - workers
- Liberals
- Other nationalists/fascist party
- Ras
- Church/Pope
- Business/Industrialists/Elite
mussolini and the catholic hurch initally
increased clerical salaries
rel ed resinstated in schools
crucifix restored in schoolrooms and courts
he lateran pacts 1929
lateran treaty:
vatican city made sovereign stae
pope recogised rome as capital
church given 750 million lire + 1000 lire compensation for lnads lost at unification
church becomes largest holder of state bonds
concordat:
catholicism recognised as sole reliigon of state
state veto over major church appointments
re in secondary and elemenetary sschools
church marriages recognised by state
church control of divorce
state accepted catholic action
later relations of mussolini and the church
1931 quarrel over catholic action. pope condemns some of mussolinis actions as heretical
1931 pope issues a critical encyclical. comprimise reached
1938 church critical of anti semitism
what was the acerbo law
where if you gained over 25% of the votes, you would gain 2/3 of the seats
what were some of the ramping up and political strategies used to enforce fascism
mussolini threatened to dissolv eparliment if he was faced with opposition
censorship
bar on meetings by opposition parties
local/central gov appointd by officals
can bypass anything
matteoti murder
every appointment has to go through mussolini
banned contraception, votes for men over 21 and yu must support fascism or else you would have to use a different colour ballot (corruption)
mussolini international relations in move to global war
League of Nations; Corfu incident; Fiume; Libya;
Somaliland; relations with Britain and France to 1935? Abyssinia; relations with
Germany from 1935? Spain; Albania; Greece; North Africa; allied invasion 1943
what were the aims of foregin policy that related to fascist idealoody and aims
Restore Italy’s pride – Roman empire, terra irridenta
* Control Mediterranean Sea
* Create a nations of Fascists
* State before individual
attempts to gain fiume was
1919-20
when was the corfu incident
aug 1923
when do italy gain fiume
1924
what does italy gain in 1926 following talks with britain and france
somaliland and libya
when oes italy block takeover of austria
july 1934
when is the stresa front formed
april 1935 sith britian and francee
when do italian troops invade abyssinia
2nd oct 1935
hoore-laval scheme collapses
dec 1935
when did italy conquer abysinnia
may 1936
effect of gaining abyssinia
pleased italian nationalists
gained support of church
when does mussolni stop opposing hitler
july 1936
how many troops and how much money was spent on the spanish civil war
70,000 troops
10 billion lire
when was the rome berlin axis
oct 1936
when was the anti-comintern pact
dec 1937
when was the munich conference
sept 1938
when was the invasion of czechoslovakia
march 1939
april 1939
attempts to annex albania setback
1st sept 1939
hitler invades poland
due to weakness, mussolini does not join (he wanted 3 years to prepare)
when does italy join the invasion of poland
10th june 1940
when was mussolini overthrown
24th july 1943
when is mussolini arrested and hung
27th april 1945
when was anschulss
march 1938
when was invasion of sudetenland
sept 1938
when was the takeove rof the rest of czechoslovakia
march 1939
when was te invasion of poland
sept 1939
who ordered mussolini’s arrest
the king (difference between mussolini and hitler
what was the OND
opera nationale dopolavaro
organsied holiday trips
what was the l’inquadremento
party membership
what was the romanita movement
looking back at ancient rome as an example of what present rome should be like
organisation of the OND
huge agency providingg social activities, holidays, entertainment, sport and welfare. role extended during battle for thelira to help workers suffering wage reductions. firms developed their own onds.
when was the ond created
1925
aims of the ond
to replace and extend services previously provided by labour organisations
to provide compensation for low pay
to help production by developing healthier workers
to foster the image of caring employers
to gain popularity and support by being largely non ideological (geared to win support not covert italians to fascism)
operation fothe ond
subscription dues subsidised by the sttae and employers forced to contribute
activities offered included:
- libraries, films, radios
- travel agency
- mobile cineams, theatres and orchestras
- obligatory showing of gov controlled film company newsreels
- sport and summer camps
- welfare to families in distress
hwo many people joined th eond
3.8 million in 1939
40% industrial workforce
80% salaried emplotees
25% peasants
influence of the ond
main point of contact with industrial working class
diverted attention from econ and social problems
did not foster national community (class segregation which does not align with fascist ideas)
mass leisre organised by statae
fascist’s most popular institution nd survived the regimes collapse.
what was whittam’s view on the oind and fasict italy
that the ond was counter productive as “it enabled millions of italians to enjoy resources without the obligation of any full commitment to fascist ideals and practice”
how did fascism use ancient rome
name
many symbols
model of the leader “mussolini as new caesar”
inspiration for greater natinal pride
inspiration for foreign policy, esp a second empire
what did mussolin isay about ancient rome
“we dream of a Roman italy… much of the spirit of ancient rome is being born again in fascism”
which groups made up fascism
national syndicalists
right nationalists
moderate revisionists
hardliners
others
what changed in the fascist demographic from early to late 1920s
initally mostly small farmers. changed to being overwhelmingly middle class
tannenbaum and propaganda
the fasicst regime as “in some ways the reign of journalists”
approach to propaganda as “ameruterish”
newspapers
criticism silenced and everythign had to be inline with offical fascist views. mussolini more converend with content than ownership
radio
2 hours a day of offical broadcasts
italian audiances to films
mix of state produced documentaries, privately produced subsidised itlaian films and american improrts. newsreels. mandatory documentaries and newsreels played before themain film.
posters
most visual means of propaganda. many images of the duce. important as still considerable illeteracy
sports
encouraged as active participation and as a spectacle. used to help discipline, soclaise the people and secure their commitment to the regime. new stadiums to impress the masses. patriotism
slogans
mussolini is always right
duce, you are all of us.
(cult of duce)
how was mussolini portrayed
saviour of italy
send by god
supreme patirot
heir to caesar and augistus
all wise ruler
world statesman
paternal love for his people
man of acton
worked up to 20 hours a day
true man of the people
incorruptibke
how was mussolini’s portrayal projected
through the media, gov announcements, public buildings.
why cult of duce
to provide focal point for people to rally around
effects of the myth
helped with mass suport
mussolinis personal prestige sustained the regume and problems blamed onfascists not mussolini
what was the battle for births
an intentional movement that stressed the traditional role of women as housewives and mothers and caused a downturn in employment opportunities for women in order to create a huge army for italy
mussolini’s stance on women
“women must obey… in our state, she does not count”
“child bearing is women’s natural and fundamental mission in life. (womens owrk) distracts from reproduction, if it does not directly impede it, and foments independance and the accompanying physical-moral styles contrarty to giving birth”
battle births start date
1927
what did mussolin iaim to raise the popualtion by during the battle of births
20 million in 23 years
what did the battle of births include
encouraged early marriage
offered generous maternity benefits
exhorted women not to do work
gave jobs to married fathers in preference over single men
gave prizes to women who had the msot children
lower taxes
lower railway tickets
decrees to restrict female employment
decree to prevent women working and why did it not work
only 10% of jobs could be held by women. but many men were conscripted leaving the jobs to the women
ways fascism was implemented into schools
the childrens tarted the day with a prayer “i beleive in the genius of mussolini”
taught mussolini and the fascists had saved italy from communist revolution.
teachers/lecturers to swear an oath of loyalty to the king and the fascist regime
textbooks reviewed
fasicst youth movements
all made part of the onb
sons of the she wolf
balilla
avanguardisti
piccole italiane
giovani italiane
young fascists (18-21)
all groups recieved physical training and political indoctrination
what did all members of the onb adn guf have to do
swear loyalty to mussolini
how many children avoided onb membershp
40% (private schools or leaving school at 11)
hite and hinton argue that mussolini had 3 main economic aims
to consolidate his political system (and authority)
to move towards autarky
to provide a foundation for expansion
BUT he inherited
few raw materials
a north south divide
low literacy
tradiiton of industrial banking state links
when was the stefani period
1922-25
what was the stefani period
liberal policies adopted to stimulate economy
– reduce state intervention, stimulate
investment, balance budget, lower tax on war
profits
pros of the stefani period
– Unemployment dropped (by 77%),
living standards rose, economy grew (c. 20%),
made business happy, stuck to tried and tested
policies, weakened the Left and TUs
cons of stefani period
Recovery underpinned by general
European growth, favoured big business,
ideologically conservative, did not stand out as
“Fascist”
what were the battles
battle for grain
battle of the marshes
battle for the lira
pros of the battles
fit with Fascist aim of
autarky, cereal production
doubled, reclaimed Pontine
marshes, revaluation
enabled continued
importation of coal and iron
cons of the battles
– grain forced other
crops out, limited marsh
drainage (especially in the
South), revaluation led to
fewer exports and sparked
a recession
what was corporatism
…
when was the lateran treaty
1929
how successful was the lateran treaty
Big agreement: 1929 The Lateran Treaty – seen as success largely
* Result: ended conflict between government and Papacy since 1870!
* Boosted Mussolini’s popularity, church seen as regime’s ally, international
prestige for regime
terms of the lateran treaty
- Government accepted papal sovereignty over Vatican City – independent
state - Pope formally recognised Italian state and Rome as capital
- State gave Pope £30m equivalent in cash and bonds as recompense for losing
Rome and other papal lands previously held - Catholicism to become state religion of Italy – all state schools, state salaries
for clergy - Pope agreed that state could veto appointment of bishops and clergy to be
non-political - Marriage under control of church – no secular marriage or divorce
what effect did the lateran treaty have on authority
Catholic Church remained a rival – never true dictatorship
* But one which collaborated – priests gave fascist salute and Fascist icons in church,
also participated in youth groups (ONB – Opera Nazionale Balilla) Campo Dux Mass
began with Fascist anthem and prayer for Mussolini
* Slogan – ‘for Pope and Duce’ stressed unity
* BUT
* Catholic Action youth group a rival and relations problematic – 1928 catholic scouts
group banned, 1931 attempts to ban Catholic Action created conflict – Mussolini’s
statements declared heretical
* Some radical Fascists didn’t like the compromise - betrayal of aims
* From 1938 – Pope formally opposed Anti-Semitic actions related to marriage –
encyclical “Non ambiamo Bisogno” – ‘we have no need’
tannenbaum view on whether the lateran treaty had aneffect on the church
Never really controlled the church! – ‘no opposition …more formidable’ Tannenbaum
– church made more gains than Mussolini – religious actions increased popularity
duggan view on the catholic chruch
“political coup” for Mussolini; used church as “instrument for securing mass
political consent”; but “surrendered any serious claim to a monopoly of ideology”
what happend in 1921 that exemplify
Mussolini’s regime and its relationship with the Catholic Church?
moved away from anticlericalism
what happend in 1923 that exemplify
Mussolini’s regime and its relationship with the Catholic Church?
religious education in primary schools and ban on contraception
what happend in 1928 that exemplify
Mussolini’s regime and its relationship with the Catholic Church?
banned catholic scout groups
what happend in 1929 that exemplify
Mussolini’s regime and its relationship with the Catholic Church?
lateran treaty
what happend in 1931 that exemplify
Mussolini’s regime and its relationship with the Catholic Church?
tried and failed to ban catholic action
what happend in 1938 that exemplify
Mussolini’s regime and its relationship with the Catholic Church?
formaully opposed antisemtic treaty (we have no need)
why did mussolini adopt anti semitism
Fits in with a general nationalistic aim and imperial
expansion - Links to Romanita movement –
Mussolini claimed Italian race superior (NB after
Abyssinia 1936 there were racial laws passed –
regime became more racist as result of campaign)
reasons why the fasict movment technically shouldnt have been anti semetic
1% of population. Up to 1936 no anti-semitic
policies. In 1932 Mussolini had stated “AntiSemitism does not exist in Italy….good citizens”
* Some leading fascists were Jews – Guido Jung
what happend in july 1938
– 10 point Charter of Race –
claimed had scientific explanation for race – the
charter excluded Jewish children and teachers from
schools, banned marriages, owning large
businesses/estates, expelled foreign Jews
was the charter of race successful
never implemented locally and opposed by pope. some senior fascist unhappy with them too.
only had a major impact from 1943 - salo republic - extreme persecution under nazi gestapo and SS
effects of anti semitism
Resented by many – turned many against regime – losing touch with Italians by late 1930s
* Many Jews were exempted due to war service (20%) owing to influence of King – shows limits to
Mussolini’s power
* Seen as Mussolini kowtowing to Hitler
* Pope critical
* Not enforced
* 1/12 teachers sacked
* 9000 Jews went to extermination camps from 1943
* Shows harmful effects of Abyssinian campaign, shows how Mussolini coming under German
influence, shows limited impact of Fascism, contributed to decline of Mussolini
what do historians believe about mussolini’s anti semitism
Some see as Mussolini wanting to impress Hitler, chose to do so (not imposed on him by Hitler) – not rigorously applied
* Clark: “the definition of Jew was not too rigorous”
what did bernardini say about mussolini’s anti semitism
fascism had trends “flowed naturally from … imperial policies”
what happend in 1936
up to 1936 no anti semetic policies.but after abyssinnia racial lwas implemented
what did mussolini state about anti semitism in 1932
“Anti-Semitism does not exist in Italy….good citizens”
what happened in 1938
charter of race
what happend in 1943
get rid of mussolini and grand fasicst council
what formed the salo republic
italy surrendered to allies
mussolini escapes to salo republic. civil war
anti semitism. 9000 to concentration camps
who was edmondo rossoni
fascist syndicate leader in the 1920s
syndicates
combined workers groups
main empluers group
confindustra
when was the national council of corporations
1930
what did mussolini claim the corporate state as
a third way between capitlaism and socialism and a remarkable achievement of the fascist state
the great depression 1929-41
- Increased state intervention in the economy - including the IMI to support
banks in the wake of the Crash)… (not really Fascist and also bypassed the
Corporations) - Large-scale public works programmes
- Increased urgency to move to autarky (Fascist policy)
- Mussolini rode out the 1930s when many fell from power…
institute for industrial reconstruction iri
set up in 1933, took over failing
industries on behalf of the state, became enormous by the late 1930s dominating
coal, iron and electricity, but parts then sold off to create huge private monopolies
(Montecatini and SINA Viscasa – chemical industry)
league sanctions from 1935
relating to Abyssinia Crisis, forced further selfsufficiency. Italy became self-sufficient in grain and industrial output overtook
agricultural output as the largest part of GNP by 1940. But, there was limited
modernisation, low imports led to oil/iron shortages, and recovery from the
Depression was very slow
“Evaluate the role of domestic economic policies on the mainteance of power in mussolini’s authoritarian state”
williamson
“Evaluate the role of domestic economic policies on the mainteance of power in mussolini’s authoritarian state” vadja
“Evaluate the role of domestic economic policies on the mainteance of power in mussolini’s authoritarian state” tannenbaum
“Evaluate the role of domestic economic policies on the mainteance of power in mussolini’s authoritarian state” robson
what did the fascists have to accept about womens work
that they wouldnt stop wroking in agriculture
why was there an increase of 9% of women at university between 1914 and 1938
lack of job opportunities
controls on womens personal life
were supposed to be well rounded and sturdy
no cosmetics, high heels or trousers
no sport
women and politics
1919 vote extended but women couldnt vote
1925 women could vote in local elections but then ended elections
some women fascist groups
campaigns and women
ONMI - state organisation designed to help mothers (esp disadv ones)
encouraged to engage incharity work
run home econ course s for women workers
enlisted in campaign against the league of nations sanctions culminating in exhanging their gold wedding rings for tin bands
ecnoruaged to attend rallies, partake in propaganda and social work
when was the massaie rurali - rural housewives
1935
rachele mussolini (1892-1979)
mussolini’s wife
bore him 5 children
margherita sarfatti
mussolinis mistress that also helped with fasicst publications and had a mjor moderating influence on domestic and foreign policy. was supressed and ended influence after the 1938 anti semetic legislation
clara petacci
mussolinis mistress
insanely loyal to mussolini
gregor’s view on women
fasicst anti feminism was not particualrly successful
de grazia view on women
the mass organisations of women ultimately reflected unresolved tensions within the dictatorship over whow to define women inth eitalian state
willson view on women
doomed ultiamtely to fail in their declared ambition to make women into angels of the hearth
particualr patterns of industrialisation, commercialisation and urbanisation ahd more power to shape female experiences in this period than the crude tools of fascisst idealogy and policy
tannanbeaum view on youth
elementary school affected others not os mich
de grazia view on youth
powerful impact despite membership not being universal
people joined due to pressure, material adv, parental fears, peer pressure.
fascist regimentation entierly routine
hat did mussolini change about education
standardised exams
ignored the illeteracy rate and discriminated against women
attendance at school dropped
standard textbook libro unico
bottais school charter 1939
religion compulsory in schol
cult of mussolini
teachers had to swear an oath in 1931 to
the king and state
cult of mussolini implemented into schools how
portrait of mussolini n all classrooms
notebook with mussolini on the front
cotnrol over teachers
oath of loyalty
teachers assocaitins merged into fascist association
indoctrination courses mandatory for promtotion
1933 new teachers had to be fascists
1938 dismassal of jewish teachers and students
How did musssoloni restrict the influence of the PNF by
Using members of the traditional conservative elites to maintain law and order. This included the police, the judicial system, the civil service and the army
Podesta
Local mayors
After elected local councils were abolished in 1926 the prefecets- whose powers were greatly increased - appointed all the mayors in their province. They usually chose respectable landowners or Rx army officers, rather than local fascists. Podesta received no payment, so they needed to be financially independent
Why were judges sacked
Lack fo loyalty or for following an overly jndepdnent line
when did egypt acheive nominal independence from britain
1922
why did egypt achieve NOMINAL independence
because the terms of the agreement left british troops in total control of the suez canal
why did britian take control of egypt and the suez canal
egypt had served as a highway of trade and a passage of conquest. the outbreak of ww1 meant it was v important strategically and it placed it under tighter foregin control. the electe assembly was abolisehd and it became an english protectorate
what did saad zaghlul demand at the paris peace talks
that egypt be represented as they had helped the allies win ww1. the british refused and exiled him to malta this angered egyptians mroe and in 1922 enfland was forced to end the protectorate and giv egypt independence.
who led the inital independence of egypt
nationalists. zaghlul prime minister in 1924 following elections. very restrictive and strict. intolerant. revived press las. died in 1927
when was the 1922 declaration reviewed
- the anglo egyptian treaty of 1936 loosened britains grip a little but maintained british troops in the country, espcially on the canala zone which was coined as useful for ocmmunication . egypt unhappy
what was the 4th feb incident
when the british empire demanded king farouk to bend to british demands, very humiliating
what was the last war king farouk had to fight to lose his crown
in may 1948 the egyptian army crossed the sinai desert with the intention of deafeating the israleis and returning the land to the palestinians. egyptians held the land for 10 months as their israeli counterparts were much stronger until a truce in march 1949 where egypt felt king farouk had abandoned them
why did officers feel they hdad to overthrow the monarchy through a coup d’etat
after the last fight for farouk they felt they had to save egypt themselves
what happened in october 1951
the gov tried to put an end to the 1936 treaty but the britihs didnt agree so it did nothing
unease in egypt after the arab israeli war
defeat of arab side, unpopular minority governments and two prime ministers had been assassinated. gov’s unsuccessful at controlling streets and many govs were aristoccracy who just wanted power not to fix the governments problems.
becoming more receptive to revolutionary ideas
run up to black saturday
popular struggle that targeted the british, workers refused to work in british companies and guerrila bands calling themselves fedayeens attacked british soliders.
riots and fighting in the canal zone.
black saturday
26th january 1952
building sburnt
26 dead
the free officers
casued by humiliation of egyptian people and weaknesss/passiviity of egyptian leaders
was the coup d’etat proper
no relatively bloodless and little resistance (26th july)
opposition to the egyptian free officer movement
revavilist islamic: favoured the muslim brotherhood
democratic movmeent for national liberation (mainly industrial workers) (henri curiel)
reformed parlimentary system (warfd party)
opposition to the egyptian free officer movement
revavilist islamic: favoured the muslim brotherhood
democratic movmeent for national liberation (mainly industrial workers) (henri curiel)
reformed parlimentary system (warfd party)
who did the free officers include
9 young officers who had come of age during the turbualnt part of egyptian history. nassar, farouk,
why was the army a legitimate way to rule
“modern”
organised, disciplined, patriotic
nassar;s political journey
attracted both by kamil’s nationalism and abduh’s islamic reformism. both proposed an egypt for egyptians. as nassar’s career in the army progressed, so did his political views. more conspiratorial, more pragmatic, and more opportunisitc. valued strong leadership
how did the free officers work
conspiratorially,
rally support of like minded officers
pamphlets or leaflets or wofrd fo outh. were trying to reach the ‘new middle class’ of young workers and gov officials and junior officers who felt disenchanted by previous leadership
who did the free offfciers presnt at the committee for the officers club
general mohammad neghib. he won a landslide victory and triggered the 23 july coup. nassar true leader
free officers (in power) beliefs
kept touch wirh all three main idealogies; the muslim brothers, the left, the parlimentary reformists
Who were the prefects
Senior civil servants who ran the administration, suppressed subversives and controlled the police who appointed the Podesta.
What did the fascists do with the traditiotal labour movement trade unions
Replace them with fascist controlled syndicates supposed to replace workers interests. By 1922, fascist syndicates had been set up headed by edomondo Rossini who wanted to create corporations that would force industrialists to make some concessions to workers demands. These corporations would be established for each industry and made up of gov representatives, employers organisations and representatives from fascist syndicates
Was the confed of fascist syndicates left or right
Left
Did the confidustria oppose or support the confed of fascist syndicates
Opposed
what caused a series of strikes in 1925
Employers unwilling to make changes after the confed of fascist syndicates
Vidoni palace act
Confidustria and confed of fascist syndicates were the only organisations allowed to represent employers and employees respectively. Workers not to challenge authority of employers and managers. All workers factory councils closed down and non fascist trade unions abolished.
1926 Alfredo Rocco’s law
All strikes made illegal even those by fascist syndicates and declared that industrial disputes must be settled in special labour courts
What did Mussolini establish in July 1926
Ministry of corporations
Charter of labour
Written by Rocco in April 1927. Guaranteed fair jugement of labour disputes and promised to carry out social reforms such as improved health care and accident insurance schemes although none of these measures had the force of law
When was the confed of fascist syndicates abolished
- Rossini dismissed
National council of cooperations was set up when
March 1930
How many cooperations in 1934
22
Why did Mussolini abolish the chamber of deputies and replace with the chamber of fasci and cooperations
An attempt to give more credibility to the corporate state and establish a new form of politics
Was Mussolini an all powerful dictator
Had to share power with trad groups like the monarchy, Catholic church, civil service and their court, industrial and financial elites and their organisations. King ultimately ordered his arrest. So largely unsuccessful
How many prime ministers between January and July
3
Al tahrir
Purification fo the system
Initial reaction to free officers
Willing, happy, open
Why did the fellahin support the free officers
Because of their proximity to ordinary people and ability to empathize
Were the free officers in an easy position
No they had a deceloped infrastructure, civil society, uncensored press, freedom of expression, economic expectations, societal expectations
nassar’s book
philosophy of the revolution
Two most difficult tasks of the free officers
They needed to satisfy the political groups (the left, the liberal and the muslim brotherhood)
Remain popular and appear in the eyes of the masses as being capable to changing their lives
Problems for the free officers with the muslim brotherhood
They joined demonstrations but were ruthless and not part of the movement
Who was ali maher
Conservative politician whobecame PM
When maher became PM,
3 member regencycouncil to rule instead of maher’s son
What was the revolutionary command council
free officers
how did nassar get rid of opponents
Ignoring opponents
Being intimidating so people wouldn’t threaten them
Army made a special military court to try and prosecute the leaders of the strike. 2 executed
dmnl
Democratic movement for national liberation that supported the free officers
Why did maher resign
Due to the afgarian reform laws
when did maher resign
free officers ordered the arrest of 64 prominent politicians and former palace men
As soon as the neghrib party took government
They passed the afgarian reform laws and party reorganisation law
Purpose of the party reorganisation law
Forced political parties to first dissolve and then to apply for recertification from the ministry of the interior to suppress any parties who’s objectives were not in public interest or whose officers included anyone accused . Neghrib says “to protect the people from political charlatanism
what does steven cook think of mahers departure
Indicated that … Governments under the new regime ere not supposed to be an independent policymaking body; but rathe rthe implementer of the free officers desired initiatives
purpose of the “cleansing campaign”
Rid the parties of their olfer generatiokn leaders and repalce them ith younger politicians who were more likely to be favourable to the free officers
How many were part of the “cleansing campagn”
800 bureuacrats and 100 military officers
How does neghrib describe the fate of those arrested during the “cleansing campaign”
“the least guilty were allowed to resign… The guiltier were discharged… The guilitiest were later tried before the tribunal of the revolution”
Whwat was the corruptiont ribunal
Set up to try those who had allegedly abused public funds.
Who refused to obey the party reorganisation law
Leader of the wafd party al nahhas. Took it up with state council. Free officers outlawed all political parties before court tuling. They blamed the parties that had resisted voluntary purification.
Waht did nassar annoucne in feb
Reforming the parlimentary system had become “a minor objective comapred to the wider aims of our revolution”
The banning of the parties was accompanied by
The announcement of the three year transition period and the launching of a new poltiical movement directly attached to the free officers, the liberation rally, which would mobilsie the people and rally their support for the government. Nassar became the liberation rally secretary general.
liberation rally’s 11 articles
1 complete and unconditional withdrawal of foreign troops from the Nile Valley
2 self-determination for the Sudan
3 a new constitution expressing the fundamental aspirations of the Egyptian people
4 a social system in which all citizens shall be entitled to protection against the ravages of unemployment, illness, and old age - i.e. a welfare state
5 an economic system designed to encourage a fair distribution of wealth, full exploitation of natural and human resources, and the maximum investment of new capital
6 a political system in which all citizens shall be equal before the law and in which freedom of speech, assembly, press and religion shall be guaranteed within the limits of the law
7 an educational system designed to develop a sense of social responsibility by impressing youth with its duties as well as its rights and with the overriding need to increase production in order to raise Egypt’s standard of living ▲ The Liberation Rally Hai’at al Tahrir Cairo, January 1953
8 friendly relations with all Arab states
9 a regional pact designed to increase the influence of the Arab League
10 friendly relations with all friendly powers
11 firm adherence to the principles of the United Nations, with special emphasis on their application to subject peoples.
What happened with the consitution in februrary
50 prominent figures put in charge of rewriting.
New constituion
Egypt abolished its monarchy, deposed the infant king, and became a repuvlic.
What did the fgov do following january 1954 ceremonies commemorating those killed in the canal zone turned violent
Arrested 450 muslim brothers and banned their organisations
When did nassar force neghrib to resign
23rd feb 1954
In a communique, the rcc accused neghrib of
Underminign gthe views of others and seeking total control. The announcement of the resignation eld to an outcru noth among the public and more importantly, within the ranks of the army. The reaction was so severe that nassar stood back and allowed neghrib to resume his post as president.
What resolution did nassar put forward in the rcc
Calling for immediate elections. Te resolution was passed. It called for the rcc to surrender its powers and thus proclaim the end of the egyptian revolution. It announed that all oolitical parties could resueme their activities and free elections were called for on 23 july 1954. the announcemnt caused panic. Choosing neghib over nassar was choosing chaos over order. It was choosing the old party poltiical system over the revolution.
Protest movements after the nassar resolution in the rcc
As protest movements for and against the elections spread in Cairo, the Free Officers were able to step in once again as the saviours of the ordinary people. Newspapers were put under strict censorship. Universities were brought under tight surveillance. A number of officers accused of incitement to mutiny were tried and given long prison sentences. On 29 March the RCC announced that the elections were cancelled. Support for Neghib started to wane as the public saw him as regressive, as the one who wanted to return Egypt to the way it was. On 17 April Neghib resigned as Prime Minister but remained President until November, when he was dismissed, accused of treason, and put under house arrest.
After neghrib was out of the way, and nassar had to oppose the muslim brotherhood what was his primary method
The assassiantion and speech. Followed by the mass arrests and execution of three muslim brother leaders.
Nassar’s gains in october 1954
Successfully eliminated neghib, wafd, muslim brotherhood, the left.
Peter woodward “the secret of the revolution was slowly being revealed, not hte least to the rcc itself: nasser was its leader and all the world increasingly realsie d it.
Hypothesis 1 and 2
- Nassar
- Absence of a guiding ideology for the free officers
PAN ARAB DREAM TO NATIONAL DISASTER
add fc from this doc
waht was the tahrir priject?
?
how much money was inveted into new projects in egpt between 1960 and 1970
£E 483 mllion
when did nassar announce the failure of the land reclamation programme
23rd july 1969
robert manero opinion on nationalisation
“nationalisation is ultimately a political action related to nasser’s persistent drive for hegemony.”
what did maintaining the egyptian economy do
served a political purose rather than an economic one, allowed nasser to use western economic interference to his advantage by pormoting nationalism
effect of ansser;s rejection of democracy and establisehment of a single party
served a similar authoritarian purpoe. by cocnentrating power within the framework of one large instituion, the state, and giving it the ultimat epower of decision making, nasser;s regime had created a new aristocracy of tis own. the rich middle classes and bureucracy used every means possible to maintain their newly fained priviliges through neoptism and corruptuon.
what was nasser’s foremost ambition
to free egypt from imperalism and aoffer it a more active role in world politics.
riginal idea of the free officers
“egypt for egyptians”
to rid egypt of the imperialsit stranglehold q
what had the libration rally called for
the unconditional british withdrawl formm the nile valley
agreement with thebritish for the canal zone
they would become technicians rather than soldiers for the enxt seven years. the soldiers could rturn if egypt attacked (or any other arab country). not a great vicotry for the rcc as britains till held a lot of pwoer
what is positive neutralism
this epxression was used during the cold war by coutnries that actively and consciously sought not to adhere to either side. these countries presented themseves as the thrid force and tried to recruit countries to their cause. they were also known as non laigned nations.
rcc sought aid frm washington as a counterweight to the british
but britihs pm demanded aid come from both america and britain
bahdad pact
brigning together iran, pakistan, turkey and iraq with gb. to form amilitary bloc against ussr but nasser interpreted it as an attempt by the british to isolate cairo. therefore nasser jumped to join positiv enutralism.
in bangdun where he joined positiv enutrlaim, what did nasser do
make a good impression with many wrold eladers and gained a lot of popularity
how much of aloan did nasser ask of the usa bank for in early 1956
200 million, to which theya greed.
when the bank of usa decided they did not want to give nasser 200 million anymore what did they do
reversed it sdecision which resulted in nasser nationalising the suez canal. british asked to leave and the agreement of 1954 with british annulled. revenue from canal now be used to financ ethe construction of the high dam at aswan.
which countries got together to ppose the antionaliation of the suez canal
britain, france and israel. also aggravated by nasser;s support for the algerian national liberation front. nasser was israels enemy as he strengthened the palestinan cause. he had since 1955 closed the tiran straits blcokign israeles access to the red sea. (new fc?)
when did the israeli army attack sinai
29th october 1956
SUEZ / TRIPARTITE WAR PAGE 43. CAUSES AND EVENTS
.
SUEZ CANAL WAR CAUSES AND EFFECTS AND EGYPTS MOVE TO THE SOVIET CAMP
.
what is arabsim
an ideology that sees arabs as one nation with no state boudnaries, came about in the 1940s through michel aflaq and asalah bitar, te founders of the baath (renaissance party)
nasser’s reasons for need fo runity in his book
their geographical closeness
their location on the globe giving them access to 3 continetns
the oil that exiwted in abundance under the ground of theri nations
failure of the syrio egyptian experiment
page 45
the yemen episode
page 46
confrontation wth the stte of israel page 46
.
war over water date
january 1964
what was the war over water
plan todivert the jordan river. as a result of the armistiic elines drawn up in 1949, israel jordan and syria had to share the waters of ther ivers jordan and yarmuk,.
the jordan valley unified water plan
- rejected by the arab league nations but israel went ahead completing it in 1964. other nations foudn this threatening and came up with palnes to reduce israels water by 35%. nothing concrete byt issue remained unsolved.
1967 war (six day war)
started with pre-emptive air strike by israelis. on 5th june.
what according to steven coook pushed nasser to raise the stakes in the months pripr to the 1967 six day war
Between April and May clashes along the Syrio-Israeli border had escalated; in April the Israeli air force shot down six Syrian MiG-21s and in May Nasser received a Soviet report that Israeli forces were moving towards the Syrian border. Both of these incidents put pressure on Nasser, the acclaimed leader of the Arab world, to react.
Since UNEF had been placed in Sinai, Arab leaders hostile to Nasser accused him of “hiding behind the UN”. This left Nasser with a dilemma: should he ignore them and tarnish his reputation as leader of the Arab world, or act? Nasser chose the second option. Nasser’s decision was the ultimate example of his risk-taking and his unsound foreign policy. The Egyptian army was already involved in the Yemeni war and clearly not ready to participate in a war against Israel.
egypt response to 1967 six day war
issued a statemtn asking for the withdrawl of unef. closed tiran straits. israelhad made it clear they hwould attack if they were closed.
massive defeat. lot 10,000 vehicles. 250,00 egyptians became refugees.
percentage of children recieving primary education rose from what to what in towns and from what to what in rural districts
50 to 90
50 to 75
why were cinema and radio good for sharing nasser’s message
egypt had a strong oral tradition in which images and sounds were far more accessible than the written word. he coudl reach the the entire arab world
since the 1930s egypt was
the hollywood of the oreient
what did abd el halim’s movies do
critical of the past and painted an optimist picture of the nasserist reforms particularly appealed to lower an dmiddle classes.
when was the film industry nationailsied
1961
wahy was the raido so useful in sharing messages
cheap, entertaining and accessible in remot eareas where people could not read.
awt al arab
voice of the arabs aired for the first time on 4th july 1953. by the end of its lifeitme in 1967 it was being broadcast for 15 hours a day and had become one fo the most influential media tools in the arab world
chief annucner of sawt al arab
ahmad said
chief announcer of sawt al arab
ahmad said
voice of the arabs mainly comprised of
news, commmentary, press reviews, intervies and music
truth and lies
the annoncer would read out anti nassr articles, dismiss them as lies and then rad out th etruth
do not forget
read out all the wrongs tha thad been doen to the arab world
how did radio serve nassers goal of arab unity
the language was colloquial arabic, ammiyya, informal which brought it closer to its public and forginf th arab world together
when did radio come to an end in egypt
when the ‘truths’ turned out to be lies. when the 1967 war broke out, ahmad said continued to announce that the egyptian forces were winning when it had become clear that the defeat was massive.
