midterm Flashcards
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding succeeds to other participants and circumstances
Biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates bio logical, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis
hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect of behavior caused by the administration of an intern substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it in half are below it
mode
The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
ethics in an experiment
1)obtaining informed consent of a potential participants 2)protect them from harm and discomfort 3) treat information about individual participants confidentiality and 4) fully explain the research afterwards
illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do
Control group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrast of the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
experimental group
an experiment the group that is exposed to the treatment that is to one version of the independent variable
autonomic nervous system
part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs. it’s sympathetic division arouses it’s parasympathetic division calms
somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body skeletal muscles
sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
endocrine system
The bodies slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream
corpus collosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and caring messages between them
brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
limbic system
neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
amygdala
to lima beans sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus. it directs several maintenance activities like eating drinking & body temperature. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and its link to emotion and reward
plasticity
brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
phrenology
The study of bumps on the scull
axon
The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
dendrite
The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
frontal lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the four head; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Occipital lobe
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
cocktail party effect
we can only truly concentrate on one voice in a crowd
Choice blindness
we only see what we’d like to see
selective attention
The focusing on conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep, a reoccurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.
sleep apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.
melatonin
a sleep induced hormone
sleep deprivation
symptoms include irritability fatigue memory loss increase of appetite
biological versus adoptive influences
biological influences shaped our personality and physical appearances. Adopted influences our children’s attitudes, values, manners, faith, and politics
natural selection
The principle that among the range of inherited traits variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
behavior genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on our behavior
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
DNA
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up chromosomes
identical twins
twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal twins
twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than Brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
embryo
The developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month
piaget’s theory of cognitive development
from birth to nearly 2 years – sensorimotor: experiencing the world through senses and actions involves object permeance and stranger anxiety.
Two to about six or seven years – preoperational: representing things with words and images using intuitive rather than logical reasoning. Pretend play and egocentrism
about 7 to 11 years-concrete operational: thinking logically about concrete events grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetic operations. Conversion and mathematical transformations appear
about 12 through adulthood-formal operational: abstract reasoning. potential for mature moral reasoning
Harlows attachment theory
infants need attachment from their parents. Touching is soothing to the child and is needed for healthy relationship
object permanence
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
theory of mind
peoples ideas about their own and others’ mental states. how they perceive their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict
critical period
in optimal period Shortly after birth wear an organisms exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
menarche
The first menstrual period
authoritative
strict obedience
authoritarian
Demanding, responsive, explaining, and adaptive
egocentrism
the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view
primary sex characteristics
non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
cross-sectional study
A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
longitudinal study
research in which the same people every studied and retested over a long period
teratogens
harmful chemicals that affect the baby in the womb. Stuff like alcohol, and drugs
schema
A guideline for certain stimulus
assimilation
allowing new stimulus to form into our already predisposed schemas
accommodation
allowing are already predisposed schemas to change because of new stimulus
insecure attachment
infants that are less likely to explore their surroundings they make cling to their mothers and cry loudly when she leave
primary sex characteristics
The body structures that make sexual reproduction possible
Ericksons development theory
infancy to one year – trust vs miss trust
toddler 1 to 3 years – autonomy vs shame and doubt
preschool 3 to 6 - initiative vs guilt
elementary school 6 to puberty- Industry versus inferiority
adolescence teen years into 20s – identity versus role confusion
Young adulthood 20s into early 40s-intimacy versus isolation
middle adulthood forties to sixties-Generativity versus stagnation
late adulthood 60s and up – integrity versus despair
subliminal
below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
webster’s law
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage
accommodation
The process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
gestalt
and organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
figure ground
The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings
perceptual consistency
perceiving objects as unchanging, even as illumination and retinal images change
perceptual set
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
linear perspective
parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the greater their perceived distance
connectedness
because they are uniform and linked, we perceive each set of two dots and the line between them as a single unit
fundamental attribution error
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of the personal disposition
foot in the door phenomenon
The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
role
A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
cognitive dissonance theory
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent.
conformity
adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple Or well learned tasks in the presence of others
deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Group polarization
The enhancement of the groups prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
groupthink
The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in the decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
mere exposure effect
The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
GRIT
graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction – a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
Solomon asch experiment
for people to answer the wrong answer if the group is answering that way
