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U1 Psychology of Cognition 213 > M2 Lecture 13 > Flashcards

M2 Lecture 13 Flashcards

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1
Q

define Categories

A

The systematic grouping of instances that are similar

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2
Q

Categories: The systematic grouping of instances that are similar ¤ Different theories on how this grouping occurs
¤ Theories tend to follow what idea

A

the idea of cognitive economy

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3
Q

what is the idea of cognitive economy

A

¤ A balance between simplification and differentiation with categorization ¤ Use the fewest ‘bits’ of information to store a category but still ensure a
category can distinguish between things

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4
Q

define Concepts

A

The knowledge associated with a category

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5
Q

Conceptual knowledge is used to:

A

¤ Make predictions about our environment ¤ Identify new instances of categories

¤ If it walks like a duck, and talks like a duck …

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6
Q

what is the function of categorizing

A

allows is to do “the right thing with the right kind of thing

¤Provides material for thoughts

¤The basis of communication
¤Language categories

¤Generalizations to guides behavior and make predictions
¤Stereotypes as social concepts gone wrong

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7
Q

Categories are boundaries between what

A

collections of instances/members

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8
Q

what are the types of categories

A

¤ Between-category separation

¤ Within-category compression

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9
Q

what is Within-category compression

A

¤ Members of the same category look more similar

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10
Q

what is ¤ Between-category separation

A

¤ Members of different categories

look more distinct

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11
Q

How do we learn concepts?

A

Rule based approaches

Probability based approaches

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12
Q

what are the Rule based approaches

A

Concepts are collections of necessary and sufficient features
related to a category

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13
Q

what are the Probability based approaches

A

¤Concepts and categories are formed through experience ¤The prototype theory

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14
Q

according to a rule based approach, Concepts are made up of what

A

attributes

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15
Q

what are attributes

A

Attributes are features of a concept
¤ These can take on different values
¤ Attributes are expressed as different values by category members

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16
Q

according to a rule based approach, Learning a concept involves what

A

forming rules and testing them
¤ We form hypotheses about the combination of attributes that define a concept
¤ We actively test and refine these hypotheses

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17
Q

what are the Types of concepts

A

¤ Conjunctive concept

¤ Disjunctive concept

¤ Relational concept

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18
Q

what is Conjunctive concept

A

¤ Concepts that contain conjunctions of attributes (AND) ¤ A Mother is defined as a female AND having a child

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19
Q

what is Disjunctive concept

A

¤ Concepts where two or more possible sets of attributes (Either-or
concepts)
¤ Fame can be defined in different ways

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20
Q

what is Relational concept

A

¤ Concepts defined by a relation between attributes ¤ Marriage is defined by the link between two people

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21
Q

what are the different Rule-based instances

A

positive
negative
abstraction

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22
Q

what is Positive instance:

A

An example of a particular concept
¤ Criterial attribute
¤ An attribute that must be present for a positive instance
¤ Wings of a bird

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23
Q

what is Negative instance:

A

An example that does NOT contain the right attributes of a particular concept

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24
Q

what is Abstraction

A

What we do to determine which attributes to include and exclude when forming concept rules
¤ Most typical of the concept

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25
Q

explain the experiment that tested how we learn concepts

A

¤Tested how we learn conjunctive concepts
¤ Two attributes must be present
¤ E.g. A card with a black (AND) square

¤Reception task
¤ Participants are shown cards (instance) from a deck in a pre-arranged order
¤ They indicate if they think a card is part of the concept
¤ Experimenter tells them if they are correct

¤Selection task
¤ Participants pick a card (instance) from the deck
¤ Experimenter tells them if it is a positive instance of the concept they are to learn

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26
Q

Selection tasks: Forming rules what is this

A

Form rules of a concept to guide how to pick instances

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27
Q

what is Conservative focusing

A

¤ When you encounter a positive instance
¤ Focus on one attribute of this instance to create a rule
¤ ‘Test’ this rule on new instances
¤ Select instances that vary only on this attribute

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28
Q

what is Focus gambling

A

¤ When you encounter a positive instance
¤ Focuses on all the attributes of this instance to create a
¤ Select new instances that have all these attributes
¤ Quick results if positive instances comes soon after forming rule

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29
Q

what are the subsections of forming rules

A

conservative focus and focus gambling

30
Q

what is Simultaneous scanning

A

¤ Start with all hypotheses about the concept

¤ Attempt to eliminate as many as possible with each instance ¤ Elimination strategy

31
Q

what is Successive scanning

A

¤ Form a single hypothesis about the concept ¤ Test it by selecting instances until it is false ¤ Stab in the dark approachSuccessive scanning
¤ Form a single hypothesis about the concept ¤ Test it by selecting instances until it is false ¤ Stab in the dark approach

32
Q

Rule based approaches: Some issues

A

There are not always explicit rules to define a concept in the real-world ¤ But some concepts don’t have explicit rules
¤ The concept ‘student’ or a ‘bachelor’?

We don’t always explicitly test these rules ¤ Some concepts are learned implicitly
¤ Language learning (we will come back to this in a later lecture)

Category membership has very defined boundaries with a rule-based approach ¤ There is complexity of concepts in real world
¤ Some concepts are ‘kind of’ part of a category

33
Q

are boundaries very clearn

A

nope– pretty fuzzy

Items can belong to different categories
Membership to a category is a matter of degree

34
Q

what is Prototype theory of category learning

A

¤ An approach that is not rule-based
¤ States that concepts are formed by how we interact with our environment and information
¤ Conceptual knowledge and categories are by a ‘more or less’ principle

35
Q

do Concepts have rules or a ‘single essence’ or collection of features

A

no

36
Q

Concepts are better understood as clusters of what

A

attributes

¤ No one ‘thing’ to define a concept

37
Q

do attributes need to present in all

concept category members

A

no

All members resemble each other in some way

38
Q

We use similarities between things rather than what to figure out a concept

A

explicit rules

39
Q

what is Prototype theory

A

¤ Categories formed from the overlap of concepts exemplars
¤ This happens through experience and comparing to what we
know

¤ Each category has a member that is a prototype
¤ Items are included in a category around that prototype via resemblance
¤ There is no requirement that a property or set of properties are shared by all members
¤ there are no criterial attributes

40
Q

what is the ‘cleanest’ example of a categoty

A

The prototype is the ‘cleanest’ example of a category

¤ It is at the center of your representation of a category

41
Q

what is The ‘Typicality’ effect

A

A preference for processing prototypical items compared to more obscure category members

(you would recognize a morning dove as a bird faster than a penguin as a bird)

42
Q

what can prime prototypical items more than non-prototypical items

A

category names

43
Q

can prototypes change

A

yes over time

44
Q

how do The levels of concepts work

A

General to specific

45
Q

We favor the what level of

concepts

A

basic

¤ How we naturally speak
¤ Reflects cognitive economy
¤ A behavioral advantage for classifying at the basic level
¤ Children learn concepts at a basic level first

46
Q

what are the Parallels in development and loss

A

¤ Preservation of general relative to specific information in semantic dementia (SD)
¤ Controls and SD patients asked to classify items at specific level (golden retriever), basic level (dog), general level (animals)
¤ Early on, basic category level information is spared and general level information is impaired
¤ A dog is a dog but not an animal
¤ As disease progresses, the reverse pattern is seen
¤ A dog is an animal and not a dog

47
Q

what is The levels of concepts: Graded structure

A

¤ Distinguishes between concepts at the same level of inclusiveness
¤ Represents how well a member represents a concept
¤ Some members are better examples than others

48
Q

what determines concepts

A

our culture

¤ There is stability in the prototype structure across people from the same culture

49
Q

what are the Problems with prototypes

A

¤Does not account for how context can determine a concept

Is a harmonica a musical instrument?
depends on where you are

50
Q

what is the Embodied view of concepts

A

¤ Concepts are formed to facilitate interaction with the environment
¤ Concepts make use of sensory-motor, emotional, and social cognition capacities of our body-brain system

51
Q

what are Ad-hoc categories

A

¤A category invented for a specific purpose, particular occasion or goal
¤Similar characteristics (e.g., graded structure) to other basic prototype categories
¤Indicates we can use concepts flexibly
¤ Think creatively

52
Q

explain the experiment about Concepts and creativity

A

¤ Participants completed tests of creativity ¤ Split into low and high creative people
¤ Participants then did a free association task (generate as many concepts to a term)
¤ These data were used to create semantic ‘concept’ networks for each person ¤ High creative ability was linked to broader and flexible concept networks

53
Q

what was the experiment that tested if Do gestures affect the way people mentally represent concepts?

A

1.Learn the Tower of Hanoi Test
¤ Move disks from one peg to another
2.Explain and perform gestures of the solution
3.Re-do the Tower of Hanoi Test with a set that matched or mismatched gestures
¤ Given disks of same weights from (1) OR disk of different weights (now gestures do not match)

54
Q

what was the result of the Tower of Hanoi experiment (where they had to move the blocks)

A

If gestures did not matched how to solve the second trial of the Tower of Hanoi (i.e., the disks were heavier), performance was impaired
¤ People ‘stored’ their solutions in the gestures used to describe them
¤ Gesturing grounds people’s mental representations in action

55
Q

what is Embodiment

A
  1. Simulationisimportantforconceptualprocessing

2. Conceptual knowledge is stored as sensorimotor representations in the brain

56
Q

what is the Perceptual symbols system

A

Rejects the notion that concepts are amodal (abstract)

57
Q

according to the Perceptual symbols system, Perception and concept formation work together explain

A

¤ We store the knowledge of a concept across our senses

¤ ‘Perceptual symbols’are reflected in the way we use our brains to retrieve knowledge

58
Q

according to the Perceptual symbols system, Activating a concept will do what

A

ge senses/perceptions to simulate the concept based on goals of the current task
¤ What we need to know

59
Q

what was the experiment about Perceptual symbols system

A

¤ Property verification tasks: verify if the perceptual property fits with the object/concept
¤ People are faster if a previous trial was in the same modality (sense) ¤ Evidence that we recruit concept attributes based on senses/perceptions

60
Q

In an MRI scanner, participants passively read action words: pick, kick, lick that relate to hand, foot and mouth activities
what happened in the brain

A

The corresponding body part brain region was activated during passive reading of the concepts

61
Q

Ballet and Capoeira dancers viewed ballet and capoeira dances in an fMRI scanner what happened in the brain

A

There was more activity in movement areas (premotor cortex) when viewing dances
for which they were experts
¤ Acquired motor concepts affected brain activity
¤ Experts can simulate movement concepts they are familiar with

62
Q

what are Mirror Neurons

A

Neurons that fire when we perform an action and observe that action in others

63
Q

mirror neurons were first discovered where

A

in monkey
¤ Electrodes in prefrontal cortex that control hand/mouth actions
¤ Recorded activity when monkeys reached for food
¤ Recorded activity when the monkeys observed a person pick up food ¤ Found overlap in neural activity

Observed actions stimulates the same neurons that would fire when that action is produced

64
Q

do Different areas of the brain process different concepts

A

yes

65
Q

what are two examples of Brain injury cases of people with category specific deficits

A

¤ Some have selective impairment in naming living things

¤ Some have selective impairment in naming non-living things

66
Q

what is Category specific brain injury

A

¤ Selective impairment of naming non-living things
¤ Two individuals with large left-hemisphere strokes
¤ Picture matching tasks: point to the picture, in an array, that corresponds to a spoken word

67
Q

what are Sensory functional theories

A

There is no ‘ abstract module’ for concepts

¤ Knowledge of a specific category will be supported by sensory or motor areas of the brain

68
Q

how do Sensory functional theories explain different concepts

A

Different concepts are supported by different cognitive processes
because of attribute importance
¤ Living things – visual features
¤ Inanimate objects – functional features

69
Q

give a summary of this lecture

A

¤ Classical approach to concept formation
¤ Rule-based concept formation tasks and strategies

¤ Prototype views of concept formation
¤ Concepts can be meaningfully divided among three levels of inclusiveness
¤ superordinate, basic, and subordinate ¤ Concepts have a graded structure
¤ some members are better examples than other

¤ Embodied nature of cognition
¤ Our mind is linked to our bodies
¤ A bridge between goals and environmental possibilities

¤ Perceptual symbol systems
¤ We simulate conceptual knowledge
¤ Concepts are sensory and functional representations in our brain

70
Q 
According to prototype theory's organization of concepts, the labels animal, dog, beagle, correspond respectively to which sequence of levels of inclusivity?
A) Basic, superordinate, subordinate
B) Subordinate, superordinate, basic 
C) Subordinate, basic, superordinate
D) Superordinate, basic, subordinate
A

D) Superordinate, basic, subordinate

U1 Psychology of Cognition 213 (21 decks)

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