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U1 Psychology of Cognition 213 > lecture 2 > Flashcards

lecture 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the basis of the cognitive revolution

A

¤ Our brains are like computers that assess and process information via mental operations. These operations control behaviour
¤ These mental operations are the focus of psychology

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2
Q

what re Benefits of the ‘revolution’

A

¤ A renewed interest in cognitive processes that weren’t focused on in behaviorism ¤ E.g., language, real-world memories
¤ Helped develop clinical interventions based on principles of cognitive science for people with disorders
¤ Anxiety and depression

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3
Q

what are criticisms of the ‘revolution’

A

¤ Simply behaviorism with new labels – using different descriptors for behaviour ¤ The revolution is a myth and there is not ‘beginning’ to cognitive psychology
¤ The idea of a revolution creates a ’black and white’ view of psychological research ¤ Many approaches can be popular at the same time

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4
Q

what is ecological validity

A

extends to the real world (the research)

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5
Q

what feels is associated with “We are processors of information”

A

¤ Not one theory but a view/idea that is related to many other scientific fields ¤ applied mathematics, engineering, and computer science

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6
Q

explain the idea “We are processors of information”

A

¤ The world contains information for us to store and process
¤ Focus on the operations or processes that transform/store/recover (i.e., manipulate) information taken in from our senses and perceptions

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7
Q

what are the 3 basic assumptions of our minds being ‘information processors’

A

¤ If we are information processors then:
1. ¤ the mind is a general purpose processing system that performs a series of specific computations on inputs (information) to produce an output (behaviour)
2. the mind processes information by activating programmed sequential steps
(like a computer program) to run a ’system’ (i.e., perform a cognitive act)
3. Processing information requires ‘energy’, which can be measured as time

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8
Q

explian the basic assumption that “¤ the mind is a general purpose processing system that performs a series of specific computations on inputs (information) to produce an output (behaviour”

A

These computations are contained in specific processing systems ¤ Like apps on a phone

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9
Q

explain the basic assumption that “the mind processes information by activating programmed sequential steps
(like a computer program) to run a ’system’ (i.e., perform a cognitive act)

A

Each step in a sequence changes the step that came before it ¤ Information flows forward
¤ Explore the processes of each step*
(you manipulate what you input and there are processing steps to allow for things to flow forward and we want to know what these steps are)

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10
Q

explain the basic assumption that “Processing information requires ‘energy’, which can be measured as time
“

A

How long it takes to process information can provide insight into the amount of cognitive resources used (the longer it takes for you to perceive or process something, the more mental processes are being used)

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11
Q

the basic unit of the mind is what

A

a BIT

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12
Q

what does BIT stand for

A

binary digit

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13
Q

where does the idea of BIT come from

A

¤ Comes from computer programming

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14
Q

For cognitive psychology, viewing information as ‘bits’ allows us to do what

A

make predictions about how much information in our environment is processed (information and the mind is then quantified)

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15
Q

You know now that: We are information processors and it takes time to process information, depending on the amount, what question would then be asked

A

Why do we process information?

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16
Q

Why do we process information?

A

¤ To reduce the uncertainty of the world around us

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17
Q

The amount of information provided in a message is related how to its probability of occurrence

A

inversely related

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18
Q

explain “The amount of information provided in a message is inversely related to its probability of occurrence”

A

The less likely an ‘event’, the more information it conveys

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19
Q

Which missing word contains more information? (according to the idea that the amount of information provided in a message is inversely related to its probability of occurrence):

¤“The zebra has black and white _________”
¤“The zebra ran through the ________”

A

¤“The zebra ran through the ________”(there are so many possibilities that could go in here)

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20
Q

who did Early Experiments of Information Theory

A 
William Hick (1952)
and 
Ray Hyman (1953)
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21
Q

what was William Hick’s goal with his experiment

A

Determined the relationship between choice reaction time and information content of stimuli with this experiment

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22
Q

explain William Hick (1952’s experiment

A

¤ Participants saw a display of 10 lamps
¤ One lamp lit up every few seconds, participants responded to a light by pressing a key ¤ Manipulated the number of lamps that could light up across trials
¤ Sometimes only one of the ten lamp would light up ¤ Sometimes any of the ten lamps would light up

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23
Q

what were the results that Hick had with his experiment

A

¤ The reaction time to respond to a light o the display increased as the number of lamp alternatives increased
¤ People were slower to detect a light if any lamp could be lit at the 5 second intervals than when only one lamp would be lit at the 5 second intervals

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24
Q

what did hick’s experiment lead to

A

Hick’s law

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25
Q

what is hick’s law

A

A mathematical equation to show that the more information contained in a signal (the more bits), the longer it takes to make a (correct) response to this signal (the more ‘energy’ consumed)

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26
Q

what were the experiments that Ray Hyman (1953) did

A

¤ Participants responded to a set of 8 lights presented on a large matrix
¤ Lights were assigned learned “names” : Bee, Bix, Bore
¤ Exp. 1: Increasing the variety of the number of lights participants had to name
that could light up increased naming time
¤ E.g. An experiment in which Bee, Bore, Bix were lit were named slower than if
only Bore and Bix were lit (3 took longer than 2)
¤ Exp. 2: Reaction time to name a light decreased for lights that were presented often (more frequently) over a series of trials
¤ Exp 3: Over trials, the sequential probabilities of the lights were manipulated

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27
Q

what is high sequential probabilities

A

High sequential probability: A particular light is very likely to follow another particular light
¤ E.g., Bix would always following Bee

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28
Q

what is low sequential probability

A

Many lights are equally likely to come before a particular light
¤ E.g., Bore could come after either Blap or Beg

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29
Q

what were the results of Hyman’s sequential probability experiment

A

Lights low in sequential probability were named slower than those high in sequential probability
¤ More uncertainty led to longer response times

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30
Q

how do Hyman’s findings relate to modern day

A

¤ When making a decision/completing tasks, the greater the number of choices means there is more information to process.
¤ This makes is hard to make that decision or do that task
¤ This is why it takes so long to choose a movie on Netflix (so many options) or the problem with long to-do lists (what do I do next?)

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31
Q

what is Decision Fatigue

A 
Making choices (decisions) takes up cognitive energy (processing) and this can add up
We have a limited amount of cognitive processing that we can do
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32
Q

why is Decision Fatigue bad

A

¤ This means taxing cognitive processes has consequences on our ability to make
later decisions
¤ Making a healthy meal choice after having to selected a Netflix show is more difficult than making that meal choice without having to select a Netflix show
¤ Choosing a Netflix show pushed you to your limits of cognitive processing, leaving few processing resources for the meal choice

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33
Q

are there ways to avoid decision fatigue?

A

yes
eliminate the amount of complex decisions you have to make in a day (always have the same kind of clothes or breakfast so you don’t have to deplete cognitive resources for silly things)

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34
Q

with regard to decision fatigue, When is it best to make ‘tough’ decisions? ¤ Monday Mornings
¤ Friday Evenings

A

Monday Mornings

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35
Q

with regard to decision fatigue, If you were a judge, when would your most ‘honest’ decision be made:
¤ First case of the day
¤ The last case of the day
¤ After a buffet lunch

A

First case of the day

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36
Q

what idea did Webster and Thompson (1953) experiment with

A

Information processing has limits

37
Q

what was the experiment that tested Information processing has limits (Webster and Thompson)

A

Air traffic controllers listened to two simultaneous messages, each consisting of a call signal (familiar) and unrelated words (unfamiliar):
¤ “Tower this is BA 472, Pencil Beard Camera”
¤ “Tower this WW 618, Range Wire Coffee”
¤ Asked to repeat the two messages (the messages that were played at the same time

38
Q

what was the result of the experiment testing information processing limits

A

Webster and Thompson (1953): Air traffic controllers could identify both call signals, but only one of the unrelated word messages
¤ Call signals contain ‘less information’ because they are familiar
¤ Unrelated word messages require more processing because they are unfamiliar

39
Q

what did the Information processing experiment (with airtraffic controllers) lead to the conclusion of

A

¤ This study shows that
¤ Cognitive processing capacity is limited
¤ Because of these limits, we can only process some of the information and this is determined by familiarity/certainty

40
Q

how to we process information?

A

We do not passively receive and transform signal information but actively select information to process
¤ Time is a way to capture how much energy it takes to process information
¤ Without selection, we would be overloaded with input – think the ‘spinning wheel’ on a computer

41
Q

what are the two influential models of information processing

A

¤ Broadbent’s Filter Model of Attention ¤ Waugh and Norman’s Model of Memory

42
Q

what do the two influential models of information processing do

A

¤ These models highlight the basic assumptions of information processing and what cognitive processes do to deal with the limits of processing.

43
Q

what do the two influential models of information processing show

A

¤ Processing takes time and resources ¤ Processing occurs in stages

44
Q

what is the basics of Broadbent’s Filter Model (1958)

A

¤ There is a limit to the number of things we can process, or pay attention to, at any one time
¤ Information is selected for attention because of information processing limits
¤ Information-processing is restricted by channel capacity

45
Q

what is channel capacity in Broadbent’s Filter Model

A

There is a maximum amount of information that can be transmitted by a ‘device’

46
Q

how does information flow to the brain according to Broadbent’s Filter Model

A

¤ Information FLOWS in sequential steps and changes
¤1. Information enters input channels (e.g., eye, ear) and these channels are separate
¤ 2. Enters capacity-free sensory buffer or temporary store
¤ 3. A filter will select information from this buffer based on simple physical COGNITION characteristics
4. the selected input is stored

47
Q

how does the ‘filter’ in Boraden’s filter model select information

A

¤ Selects information for further processing based on common physical characteristics of a ‘channel’ (e.g., eye, ear)
¤ similar spatial location, frequency of sound
¤ This selection allows a particular message from the channel to be analyzed for
meaning
¤ That message enters consciousness and we understand it

48
Q

what happens to Information not selected by the filter (Broaden’s model)

A

held in sensory buffer and then is lost over time

49
Q

how did Broadbent come to his filter model idea (through what experiment)

A

Participants listened to three pairs of digits (24, 56, 78): One member of each digit presented to only one ear, but at the same time (2, 5, 7 to the right ear and 4,6, 8 to the left ear)
Question: What digits can people repeat back?

50
Q

what were the results of Broadbent’s experiment

A

If people were asked to recall the digits ear by ear, they recalled 65% of the
list
¤ If people were asked to recall the digits as pairs, switching between ears, they recalled only 20% of the list

51
Q

what was the Conclusion of broadbent’s experiment

A

¤ The ears function as separate channels
¤ The filter selects which channel (ear) to ‘pass on information’ for processing
¤ Switching between ears (channels) causes information to decay from the short term store because it consumes energy

52
Q

summarize Broadbent’s filter model

A

¤ In short: too many inputs or messages given to us at one time will lead to some of those messages being lost and can harm what we are doing

53
Q

what kind of model is Waugh and Norman’s Model

A

¤ A box and arrow model of cognition (how we store memories)
¤ Flow of information indicated by arrows
¤ Information is processed and stored in stages (“boxes in our head”)

54
Q

how does Waugh and Norman’s Model work

A

stimulus from environment goes to primary memory

from here, if rehired enough it will move to secondary memory and if not rehearsed, it will be forgotten

55
Q

what is goes to primary memory

A

Stimulation from our environment - we have an experience

56
Q

what is sent to Secondary memory

A

¤ Only information in primary memory that is rehearsed (strengthened) is sent here for longer term storage

57
Q

Important distinction in this Waugh and Norman’s model is the two types of memory:

A

¤ Primary memory:

¤: Secondary memory

58
Q

what is Primary memory

A

What we are aware of in the “immediate present
moment”
¤ Short-term memory

59
Q

what is Secondary memory

A

Knowledge acquired at an earlier time that can be stored indefinitely
¤ Long-term memory

60
Q

Distinction between primary/secondary memory ( Waugh and Norman’s Model) came from what kind of experiments

A

Brown-Peterson task:

61
Q

what is the Brown-Peterson task:

A

¤ Participants given a set of items (e.g., words) to remember
¤ Performed an intervening task (e.g., count backwards by threes for a certain time period – a distractor task)
¤ Recall the list of words

62
Q

what were the results of the Brown-peterson task (for Waugh and Norman’s Model)

A

The number of words remembered decreased as the distractor task increased in length
¤ This is a measure of decay of information from primary memory
¤ It happens because you can’t rehearse information (move to secondary memory)

63
Q

hat was a concern about the experiments done in the past that resulted in all these theories?

A

¤Early studies used laboratory experiments to control stimuli presentation ¤ Remembering an array of lights
¤ Remembering a list of unrelated words
Information is MUCH more complex in the real world where most of our thinking takes place

(ecological validity was a concern)

64
Q

what is Ecological validity:

A

The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings

65
Q

what is Ecological approach:

A

using the richness of information provided by the natural environment [Gibson (1950; (1966)]

66
Q

who is associated with Ecological psychology

A

J.J. Gibson (1904-1979)

67
Q

what is Ecological psychology:

A

studying cognition in a way that reflects real world conditions

–A reaction against the earlier information processing studies

68
Q

what was Gibson’s main area of study

A

How perception occurs in our environment

69
Q

what is the Main argument of Gibson

A

We learn all we need to know from interacting with the environment

70
Q

what is The significance of Gibson (what did he conclude and contribute to psychology)

A

¤ Cognition occurs at an ecological not physiological level
¤ Our environment /context affords what we do and how we perceive
¤ How we interact with our environment

71
Q

who agreed with Gibson

A

Ulric Neisser

72
Q

who is Ulric Neisser

A

¤ Leader of the Cognitive Revolution

Thought We have to apply cognitive psychology tools and theories to the real world to understand ourselves

73
Q

what did Ulric Neisser think about people and their cognition

A

A person contributes knowledge to their perception of the environment

74
Q

who came up with the idea of schemas

A

Ulric Neisser

75
Q

what are schemas

A

Organized mental templates to assist information
processing
¤ Example schemas: University classes; Dining out; Going to the Doctors
¤ Schemas direct exploration of the environment

76
Q

are schema’s unchanging

A

no
¤ If unexpected information is encountered, you remember this and will modify or update our schema if you encounter is information more and more

77
Q

what is the perceptual cycle

A

Schema’s guide exploration of the world and are shaped by what we find

(if you normally expect to find eggs in the fridge, yo will go to the fridge… don’t find them? friend keeps them on counter and day after day you stop checking the fridge and go straight to the counter)

78
Q

what is Cognitive ethology

A

Recognizes the benefits of standard laboratory tests, but suggests that these alone will not lead to valid theories of cognition

79
Q

what does Cognitive ethology say about Cognitive processes

A

Cognitive processes are fluid and can be used differently depending on a lot of factors
¤ E.g., our goals, motivation and our environment

80
Q

essentially, what does cognitive ethology say cognitive processes depend on

A

Bottom line: Cognitive processes depend on the specific situational context of the thinker

81
Q

explain the experiment about clothing and thought

A

¤ Undergraduates brought two sets of clothing to the lab ¤ Formal and causal outfits
¤ Completed a test of cognitive processing with both outfits to measures global (what is the large letter in the display) vs local (what is the smaller letters in the display that make up the big letter) processing
¤ Participants wearing formal clothes favored global processing over local processing

82
Q

what was the conclusion of the experiment about clothing and thought

A

Wearing formal clothing was associated with more abstract and big picture thinking

83
Q

is there a difference between cognition and metecognition

A

yes

84
Q

what is the difference between cognition and metacognition

A

¤ The knowledge people have about the way that cognitive processes work: Knowledge about knowledge (cognition)
¤ You are being metacognitive every time you stop and think about yourself as thinker
¤ How do I typically solve this problem? ¤ What is the best way for me to study? ¤ What is my strategy for remembering?

85
Q

summarize Information processing

A

We select information from our environment to process so we can reduce uncertainty

86
Q

what are the two models of information processing

A

¤ Broadbent’s filter model

¤ Waugh and Norman’s model

87
Q

do We process information with limits

A

yes

88
Q

what affects processing

A

The world around us – and what we already know about it

U1 Psychology of Cognition 213 (21 decks)

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