Lymphatic and Immune Systems Flashcards
Primary function of the lymphatic system
cleanse the body’s cellular environment by draining toxins back into the blood
primary function lymphatic system
works in cooperation with the immune system to protect the body from harmful substances (bodys first response against disease)
lymph/o
the fluid that removes cellular waste products, pathogens, and dead blood cells from the tissues
lymphangi/o
the capillaries, vessels, and ducts that return lymph from the tissues to the venous bloodstream
lymphaden/o
bean-shaped structures of the lymphatic system where pathogens and other harmful substances are filtered from the lymph by specialized cells of the immune system
tonsill/o, adenid/o
lymphoid structures of the lymphatic system that protect the entry to the respiratory system
splen/o
a sac-like mass of lymphoid tissue with protective roles in both the immune and lymphatic systems
myel/o
produces lymphocytes, which are specialized leukocytes (white blood cells). Myel/o also means spinal cord
thym/o
a gland located in the upper chest with specialized roles in both the lymphatic and immune systems
anti-
against
carcin/o
cancerous
immun/o
immune, protection, safe
lymph/o
lymph, lymphatic tissue
lumphaden/o
lymph node or gland
lymphangi/o
lymph vessel
neo-, ne/o
new, strange
-oma
tumor, neoplasm
onc/o
tumor
phag/o
eat, swallow
-plasm
formative material of cells
sarc/o
fresh, connective tissue
splen/o
spleen
-tic
pertaining to
tox/o
poison, poisonous
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
The most advances and fatal stage of an HIV infection
allergen
a substance that produces an allergic reaction in an individual
anaphylaxis
a severe response to an allergen which the symptoms develop quickly, and without help the patient can die within a few minutes
antibiotics
a medication that is capable of inhibiting the growth of or killing pathogenic bacterial microorganisms
antibody
a disease-fighting protein created by the immune system in response to the presence of a specific antigen
antifungal
an agent that destroys or inhibits the growth of fungi
antigen
any substance that the body regards as foreign
antigen-antibody reaction
the binding of antigens to antibodies
autoimmune disorder
any of a large group of disease characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies to work against its own tissues, mistaking healthy cells, tissues, or organs for antigens
bacilli
rod-shaped spore-forming bacteria
bacteria
a group of one-celled microscopic organisms, some of which are pathogenic
benign
not life-threatening
candidiasis
an infection caused by yeast, a type of fungus
carcinoma
a malignant tumor that occurs in epithelial tissue
carcinoma in situ
a malignant tumor in its original position that has not yet disturbed or invaded the surrounding tissues
complement system
a group of proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive form. When needed, these cells complement the ability of antibodies to ward off pathogens by combining with them to dissolve and remove pathogenic bacteria and other foreign cells
cytokines
a group of proteins such as interferons and interleukins released primarily by the T cells that act as intracellular signals to begin the immune response
cytomegalovirus
a group of large herpes-type viruses found in most body fluids and most often causing an infection without signs or symptoms. Can cause a serious illness when the individual has a weakened immune system or when passed from mother to unborn child
cytotoxic drug
medication that kills or damages cells
ductal carcinoma in situ
breast cancer at its earliest stage, before the cancer has broken through the wall of the milk duct
hemolytic
describes the function of destroying worn-out erythrocytes (red blood cells) and releasing their hemoglobin for reuse
herpes zoster
an acute viral infection characterized by painful skin eruptions that follow the underlying route of the inflamed nerve
Hodgkin’s lymphoma
a malignancy of the lymphatic system that is distinguished from non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma by the presence of large, cancerous lymphocytes
human immunodeficiency virus
a blood-borne infection in which the virus damages or kills the T cells of the immune system
immunoglobulins
bind with specific antigens in the antigen-antibody response
immunosuppressant
a substance that prevents or reduces the body’s normal immune response
immunotherapy
a treatment of disease by either stimulating or repressing the immune response
infectious mononucleosis
an infection caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that is characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes
infiltrating ductal carcinoma
breast cancer that starts in the milk duct, breaks through the wall of that duct, and invades the surrounding fatty breast tissue; also known as invasive ductal carcinoma
interferons
produced in response to the presence of antigens, particularly viruses or tumor cells. They activate the immune system, fight viruses, and signal other cells to increase their defenses
lymphadenopathy
any disease process affecting a lymph node or nodes
lymphangioma
a benign tumor formed by an abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels due to a congenital malformation of the lymphatic system
lymphedema
swelling due to an abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues
lymphocytes
one of three types of cells that are formed in bone marrow as stem cells that act as specialized antibodies
lymphoma
a general term applied to malignancies affecting lymphoid tissues
lymphoma
a general term applied to malignancies affecting lymphoid tissues
lymphoscintigraphy
a diagnostic test to detect damage or malformations of the lyphatic vessels
macrophage
a type of leukocyte that surrounds and kills invading cells
malaria
a disease caused by a parasite that lives in certain mosquitoes and is transferred to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito
malignant
becoming progressively worse and life-threatening
mammography
a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of tumors or precancerous cells
metastasis
the process by which cancer is spread to a new site; may refer to the tumor itself
metastasize
to spread from one place to another
myoma
a benign tumor made up of muscle tissue
myosarcoma
a malignant tumor derived from muscle tissue
non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
the term used to describe all lymphomas other than Hodgkin’s lymphoma
opportunistic infection
caused by a pathogen that normally does not cause illness in healthy humans, but is able to cause an infection in a weakened host
osteosarcoma
a hard-tissue sarcoma usually involving upper shaft of long bones, the pelvis, or the knees
parasite
a plant of an animal that lives on or within another living organism at the expense of that organism
rabies
an acute viral infection transmitted to humans through the bite or saliva or an infected animal
rickettsia
small bacteria that live in lice, fleas, ticks, and mites that transmit infection to humans
rubella
a viral infection characterized by a low-grade fever, swollen glands, inflamed eyes, and a fine, pink rash; also known as German measles or 3-day measles
sarcoma
a malignant tumor that arises from connective tissue; plural, sarcomas or sarcomata
spirochetes
long, slender spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement
splenomegaly
abnormal enlargement of the spleen
staphylococci
group of about 30 species of bacteria that form irregular groups or clusters resembling grapes
streptococci
bacteria that form a chain
systemic reaction
a severe reaction to an allergen; also described as anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock
teletherapy
radiation therapy administered at a distance from the body that is precisely targeted with the use of three-dimensional computer imaging
toxoplasmosis
a parasite that is most commonly transmitted from pets to humans by contact with contaminated animal feces
varicella
a highly contagious disease caused by a herpes virus characterized by a fever and rash; also known as chickenpox
3 main functions of the lymphatic system are to:
- absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins through the lacteals of the small intestine
- Remove waste products from the tissues and cooperate with the immune system in destroying invading pathogens
- Return filtered lymph to the veins at the base of the neck
villi
the lining of the small intestine, small fingerlike projections contains lacteals and blood vessels
lacteals
specialized structures of the lymphatic system that absorbs those fats that cannot be transported by the blood stream. These dietary fats are transformed in the cells of the lacteals. The lymphatic vessels then return them to the venous circulation so they can be used throughout the body as nutrients.
The blood vessels absorb the nutrients, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins from the digested food directly into the blood stream for use throughout the body.
Interstitial fluid
also known as intercellular or tissue fluid, is plasma from arterial blood that flows out of the arterioles and into the capillaries, and then flows into the spaces between the cells of the tissues.
-This fluid delivers nutrients, oxygen and hormones to the cells
-when interstitial fluid leaves the cells, it brings with it waste products and protein molecules that were created within the cells. About 90% of this fluid returns to the bloodstream.
Lymph
is made up of the remaining 10% of the returning interstitial fluid. Lymph is a clear, watery fluid containing electrolytes and proteins. It plays essential roles in the lymphatic system as it works in close cooperation with the immune system.
-Lymph collects the protein molecules created within the cells as it leaves. Lymph also removed dead cells, debris, and pathogens (including cancer cells) from the intercellular spaces
-The lymph enters very small capillaries within the tissues and then flows into progressively larger vessels and ducts as it travels in a one-way trip upward toward the neck.
-At this stage, the lymph begins to play an active role in cooperation with the immune system to protect the body against invading microorganisms and diseases. These functions are described in the discussion of the immune system
lymphatic circulatory system
and blood circulatory system work closely together, and because of these similarities the lymphatic circulatory system is often referred to as the secondary circulatory system.
- Blood circulates throughout the entire body in a loop, pumped by the heart. The blood stream flows in an open system in which it leaves and reenters the blood vessels through the capillaries
-Since the lymphatic system does not have a pump-like organ, it must depend on the pumping motion of muscles to move the fluid.
-Lymph flows in only one direct. From its point of origin, lymph can move only upward until it returns to the circulatory system at the base of the neck. Once lymph enters a lymphatic capillary, it must continue this upward flow.
Blood is filtered by ____
the kidneys, and waste products are excreted by the urinary system. Lymph is filtered by lymph nodes, which are located alone lymphatic vessels. These nodes contain specialized cells of the immune system.
Blood color makes
the arteries and veins readily visible. Since lymph is a clear fluid, the lymphatic vessels are not readily visable
Lymphatic Capillaries
are microscopic, blind-ended (sealed on one end) tubes located near the surface of the body with capillary walls that are only one cell in thickness. These cells separate briefly to allow the lymph to enter the capillary. Then the action of the cells as they close forces the lymph to flow upward and forward.
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries into progressively larger lymphatic vessels, which are located deeper within the tissues. Like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent the backward flow of lymph.
Right lymphatic duct
collects lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the upper right quadrant of the body, and the right arm. The right lymphatic duct empties into the right subclavian vein.
Subclavian vein
is the proximal part of the main vein of the arm
thoracic duct
the largest lymphatic vessel in the body, collects lymph from the left side of the head and neck, the upper left quadrant of the trunk, the left arm, the entire lower portion of the trunk, and both legs. The thoracic duct empties into the left subclavian vein
lymph nodes
small, bean-shaped node containing specialized lymphocytes that are capable of destroying pathogens. Unfiltered lymph flows into the nodes, and here, the lymphocytes destroy harmful substances such as bacteria, viruses, and malignant cells. Additional structures within the node filter the lymph to remove other impurities. After these processes are complete, the lymph leaves the node and continues its journey to become part of the venous circulation again.
Cervical lymph nodes
located along side the neck
Cervic
neck
axillary lymph nodes
located under the arms in the area known as the armpits
axill
armpit
inguinal lymph nodes
located in the inguinal (groin) area of the lower abdomen
inguin
groin
Lymphocytes
also known as lymphoid cells, are leukocytes that are formed in bone marrow as stem cells. Lymphocytes work together with the body’s organs to defend the body against antigens
antigen
any substance that the body regards as being foreign. This includes viruses, bacteria, toxins, and transplanted tissues
Three types of lymphocytes
natural killer cells, B cells, and T cells
Maturation
process of becoming mature
Differentation
means to be modified to perform a specific function. These changes enable these lymphocytes to act as specialized antibodies that are capable of attacking specific antigens
Natural killer cells (NK Cells)
play an important role in the killing of cancer cells and cells infected by viruses
B Cells
also known as B lymphocytes, are specialized lymphocytes that produce antibodies. Each lymphocyte makes a specific antibody that is capable of destroying a specific antigen
-B cells are the most effective against viruses and bacteria that are circulating in the blood. When a B cell is confronted with the antigen that is coded to destroy, that B cell is transformed into a plasma cell
Plasma cells
develop from B cells and secrete a large volume of antibodies coded to destroy specific antigens
T cells
also known as T Lymphocytes, get the T in their name from their origin in the thymus. These lymphocytes play a central role in cell-mediated immunity.
Cytokines
are a group of protein such as interferons and interleukins released primarily by the T cells. These cells act as intracellular signals to begin the immune respone
Interferons
are produced in response to the presence of antigens, particularly viruses or tumor cells. Interferons active the immune system, fight viruses by slowing or stopping their multiplication, and signal other cells to increase their defenses
Interleukins
play multiple roles in the immune system, including directing B and T cells to divide and proliferate
Tonsils
are three masses of lymphoid tissue that form a protective ring around the back of the nose and upper throat. The tonsils play an important role in the immune system by preventing pathogens from entering the respiratory system when breathing through the nose and mouth
adenoids
also known as the nasopharyngeal tonsils, are located in the nasopharynx, which is the upper part of the pharynx
palatine tonsils
located on the left and right sides of the throat in the area that is visible at the back of the mouth. Palatine describes the hard and soft palates that form the roof of the mouth
lingual tonsils
are located at the base of the tongue, however, they are not readily visible. Lingual means pertaining to the tongue
thymus
which is a mass of lymphoid tissue located above the heart, reaches its greatest size at puberty and becomes smaller with age.
As part of the endocrine system, the thymus secretes a hormone that stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells
-These T cells, which are essential to the immune system, leave the thymus through the bloodstream and lymphatic system
vermiform appendix
commonly referred to as the appendix, hangs from the lower portion of the cecum, which is the first section of the large intestine. Although its purpose was unknown for many years, recent research indicates that the appendix may play an important role in the immune system
Spleen
a sac-like mass of lymphoid tissue located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen, just inferior to (below) the diaphragm and posterior to (behind) the stomach
-The spleen filters microorganisms and other foreign materials from the blood
-The spleen forms lymphocytes and monocytes, which are specialized leukocytes (white blood cells) with important roles in the immune system
-The spleen has the hemolytic function of destroying worn-out erythrocytes (red blood cells) and releasing their hemoglobin for reuse)
-The spleen also stores extra erythrocytes (red blood cells) and maintains the appropriate balance between these cells and the plasma of the blood
Primary function of the immune system is to:
maintain good health and to protect the body from harmful substances such as:
-pathogens (disease producing microorganisms)
-Allergens (substances that produce allergic reactions)
-toxins (poisonous or harmful substances)
-malignant cells (which are potentially life-threatening cancer cells)
-the immune system uses a complex system of chemical signaling between specialized cells to identify, attack, and remember antigens
-after encountering an antigen once, the immune system’s memory of the invader enables the body to mount a more efficient future defense against that antigen
Immune system’s first line of defense
-Intact skin: that wraps the body i na physical barrier to prevent invading organisms from entering the body.
-Respiratory system: traps breathed-in foreign matter with nose hairs and the moist mucous membrane lining of the respiratory system. the tonsils form a protective ring around the entrance to the throat. If foreign matter gets past these barriers, coughing and sneezing help expel it.
-Digestive system: uses the acids and enzymes produced by the stomach to destroy invaders that are swallowed or consumed with food
-lymphatic system and specialized leukocytes (white blood cells) work together in specific ways to attack and destroy pathogens that have succeeded in entering the body
Intact
means that there are no cuts, scrapes, open sores, or breaks in the skin. The skin is also covered with an acid mantle
Acid mantle
makes it an inhospitable environment for most bacteria
Antigen-antibody reaction
also known as the immune reaction, involved binding antigens to antibodies. This reaction labels a potentially dangerous antigen so it can be recognized and destroyed by other cells of the immune system. The immune system immediately responds to the presence of any antigen
tolerance
refers to an acquired unresponsiveness to a specific antigen. The term is also used to describe a decline in the effective response to a drug, usually due to repeated use
antibody
disease fighting protein created by the immune system in response to the presence of a specific antigen. The terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably
immunoglobulins
bind with specific antigens in the antigen-antibody response. There are 5 primary types of immunoglobulins, which are secreted by plasma cells
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
the most abundant class of antibodies, and they are found in blood serum and lymph. These antibodies are active against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and foreign particles
Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
is the class of antibodies produced predominantly against antigens. These antibodies are found in body secretions such as saliva, sweat or teas, and they function to prevent the attachment of viruses and bacteria to the epithelial surfaces that line most organs
Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
is the class of antibodies that are found in circulating body fluids. These are the first antibodies to appear in response to an initial exposure to an antigen
Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
Is the class of antibodies found only on the surface of B cells. these antibodies are important in B cell activation
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
is the class of antibodies produced in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes. These antibodies are responsible for allergic reactions
Phagocytes
specialized leukocytes that act as part of the antigen-antibody reaction by destroying substances such as cell debris, dust, pollen, and pathogens by the process of phagocytosis.
Phag/o
to eat or swallow
Phagocytosis
is the process of destroying pathogens by surrounding and swallowing them. Phagocytes include monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells.
monocytes
are leukocytes that provide immunological defenses against many infectious organisms. Macrophages derive from monocytes after they leave the bloodstream and enter into the tissue. Monocytes replenish macrophages and dendritic cells.
macrophage
a type of leukocyte that surrounds and kills invading cells. Macrophages also remove dead cells and stimulate the action of other immune cells
dendritic cells
specialized leukocytes that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce infections. When such a cell is found, the dendritic cell grabs it, swallows it, and alerts B and T cells to act against this specific antigen
macro-
large
-phage
cell that eats
complement system
a group of proteins that normally circulate in the blood in an inactive form. When needed, these cells complement the ability of antibodies to ward off pathogens by combining with them to dissolve and remove pathogenic bacteria and other foreign cells
complement
means to complete or make whole
immunity
is the state of being resistant to a specific disease. This resistance can be present naturally, or it can be acquired
natural immunity
also known as passive immunity, is resistance to a disease present without the administration of an antigen or exposure to a disease. Natural immunity is present at birth, and can be augmented when breast milk passes from a nursing mother to her baby
acquired immunity
is obtained by having had a contagious disease. Being vaccinated against a contagious disease provides protection against that disease, such as measles or polio, without having been exposed to the risk of actually having the disease
vaccine
is a preparation containing an antigen, consisting of whole or partial disease-causing organisms, which have been killed or weakened. For some diseases, such as tetanus a periodic booster shot is required to maintain the effectiveness of the immunity
vaccination
provides protection against the disease; however, for some conditions a periodic booster is required to maintain the effectiveness of the immunization
allergist
specializes in diagnosing and treating conditions of altered immunologic reactivity, such as allergic reactions
immunologist
specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the immune system
immun
means protected
lymphologist
is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the lymphatic system
oncologist
a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating malignant disorders such as tumors and cancer
onc
means tumor
Lymphadenitis
commonly known as swollen glands, is an inflammation of the lymph nodes. The term lymph nodes and lymph glands are sometimes used interchangeably. Swelling of the lymph nodes is frequently an indication of an infection
Lymphadenopathy
is any disease process affecting a lymph node or nodes
lymphaden/o
means lymph node
lymphangioma
a benign tumor formed by an abnormal collection of lymphatic vessels due to a congenital malformation of the lymphatic system
angi
means lymph vessel
ruptured spleen
is a medical emergency that occurs when the covering of the spleen is torn, usually the result of a blow to the abdomen. Splenorrhagia may result
Splenorrhagia
is bleeding from the spleen
-rrhagia
means bleeding
Splenomegaly
is an abnormal enlargement of the spleen. This condition can be due to bleeding caused by an injury, an infectious disease such as mononucleosis or abnormal functioning of the immune system
lymphoscintigraphy
is a diagnostic test that is performed to detect damage or malformations of the lymphatic vessels. A radioactive substance is injected into lymph ducts, and scanner or probe is used to follow the movement of the substance on a computer screen
Lymphedema
is swelling of the tissues due to an abnormal accumulation of lymph fluid within the tissues. This is not the type of swelling that occurs due to an injury such as a sprained ankle. It is caused by damage to the lymphatic system that prevents lymph from draining properly. Because lymph is rich in protein, which is an environment that pathogens thrive in, lymphedema is often associated with infections
primary lymphedema
is a hereditary condition of the lymphatic system that develops with swelling beginning in the feet and progressing into the ankles and in an upward direction along the legs. The disorder occurs most frequently in females when the symptoms begin to appear during puberty
secondary lymphedema
is caused by damage to lymphatic vessels that is most frequently due to cancer treatment, surgery, trauma, or burns.
-Primary and secondary lymphedema are most commonly treated with compression and exercise to control the swelling and to minimize the infections. Although this treatment helps, at this time it is not possible to cure lymphedema
bioimpedance spectroscopy
is a noninvasive method of diagnosing lymphedema. It measures the resistance to an electrical current passed through the affected limp, with abnormally low results showing a buildup of lymph. If this condition can be diagnosed with this technique at an early stage, there is hope that it will not develop any further
the effectiveness of the immune system depends upon the individuals:
-general health. if the immune system is compromised by poor health, it cannot be fully effective.
-age. older individuals usually have more acquired immunity; however, their immune system tends to respond less quickly or effectively to new challenges. Babes and very young children do not yet have as much acquired immunity, and their bodies sometimes have difficulty resisting challenges to the immune system
-heredity. Genes and genetic disorders affect the individual’s general health and the functioning of his or her immune system
allergic reaction
occurs when the body’s immune system reacts to a harmless allergen such as pollen, food, or animal dander as if it were a dangerous invader
allergy
also known as hypersensitivity, is an overreaction by the body to a particular antigen.
allergen
is a substance that produces an allergic reaction in an individual
localized allergic response
also known as a cellular response, includes redness, itching, and burning where the skin has come into contact with an allergen. For example, contact with poison ivy can cause a localized allergic response in the form of an itchy rash. Although the body reacts mildly the first time it is exposed to the allergen, sensitivity is established, and future contacts can cause much more severe symptoms.
systemic reaction
also described as anaphylaxis or as anaphylactic shock, is a severe response to an allergen. the symptoms of this response develop quickly. Without prompt medical aid, the patient can die within a few minutes.
scratch test
is a diagnostic test to identify commonly troublesome allergens such as tree pollen and ragweed. Swelling and itching indicate an allergic reaction
allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) blood test
sometimes used to determine whether a person is allergic to a particular substance
antihistamines
are medications administered to relieve or prevent the symptoms of hay fever, which is a common allergy to wind-borne pollens, and other types of allergies. Antihistamines work by preventing the effects of histamine, which is a substance produced by the body that causes the itching, sneezing, runny nose, and watery eyes of an allergic reactions
autoimmune disorder
also known as an autoimmune disease, is any of the large group of diseases characterized by a condition in which the immune system produces antibodies against its own tissues, mistaking healthy cells, tissues, or organs for antigens.
-this abnormal functioning of the immune system appears to be genetically transmitted and predominately occurs in women during the childbearing years
-It is estimated that 3% of Americans have an autoimmune disorder, with women affected 2.7 times more often than men. Autoimmune disorders affect most body systems.
Skeletal system autoimmune disorder
Rheumatoid arthritis affects joints and connective tissue
muscular system autoimmune disorder
myasthenia gravis affects nerves and muscle synapes
cardiovascular system autoimmune disorder
pernicious anemia affects the red blood cells
Digestive system autoimmune disorder
Crohn’s Disease affects the intestines, ileum, or the colon
nervous system autoimmune disorder
multiple sclerosis affects the brain and spinal cord
integumentary system autoimmune disorder
scleroderma affects the skin and connective tissues
endocrine system autoimmune disorder
Grave’s disease affects the thyroid gland
immunodeficiency disorder
occurs when the immune response is compromised.
severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
is an inherited condition in which abnormalities in the immune system cause an increased susceptibility to infection and failure to thrive as a result of infections. Although the condition is rare, it is now normally part of infants’ newborn screen
HIV (human immunodeficiency Virus
commonly known as HIV, is a blood-borne infection in which the virus damages or kills the T cells of the immune system, causing it to progressively fail, thus leaving the body at risk of developing many life-threatening opportunistic infections
opportunistic infection
is caused by a pathogen that does not normally produce an illness in healthy humans. However, when the host is debilitated, these pathogens are able to cause an infection.
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
commonly known as AIDS, is the most advanced and fatal stage of an HIV infection
-treatment of HIV includes a regimen of antiretroviral drugs sometimes referred to as a “cocktail” because they must be taken in combination with each other. Although there is no cure for HIV, these drugs help control the impact of the disease on the immune system
Kaposi’s sarcoma
is an example of an opportunistic infection that is frequently associated with HIV. This cancer causes patches of abnormal tissue to grow under the skin; in the lining of the mouth, nose and throat; or in other organs
ELISA
acronym for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, is a blood test used to screen for the presence of HIV antibodies, as well as Lyme disease and other infectious conditions
western blot test
blood test that produces more accurate results than the ELISA test. The western blot test is performed to confirm the diagnosis when the result of the ELISA test are positive for HIV. This is necessary because the ELISA test sometimes produces false positive result in which the test erroneously indicates the presence of HIV
immunotherapy
also called biological therapy, is a disease treatment that involves either stimulating or repressing the immune response
-In the treatment of cancers, immunotherapy is used to stimulate the immune response to fight the malignancy.
-In the treatment of allergies, immunotherapy is used to repress the body’s sensitivity to a particular allergen. This treatment is also known as allergy desensitization
Synthetic immunoglobulins
also known as immune serum, are used as a post-exposure preventive measure against certain viruses, including rabies and some types of hepatitis. Post-exposure means that the patient has been exposed to the virus, for example, by being bitten by an animal with rabies. The goal of this treatment is to prevent the disease from developing by providing temporary immunity
synthetic interferon
is used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, hepatitis c, and some cancer
monoclonal antibodies
are any class of antibodies produced in the lab by identical offspring of a clone of specific cells. These artificially produced antibodies are used to enhance the patient’s immune response to certain malignancies, including some non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, melanoma, breast cancer, and colon cancer.
monoclonal
means pertaining to a single clone of cells .
immunosuppression
is treatment to repress or interfere with the ability of the immune system to respond to stimulation by antigens
immunosuppressant
is a substance that prevents or reduces the body’s normal immune response. This medication is administered to prevent the rejection of donor tissue and to depress autoimmune disorders
corticosteroid drug
a hormone-like preparation administered primarily as an anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant. The natural production of corticosteroids by the endocrine system
cytotoxic drug
is a medication that kills or damages cells. These drugs are used as immunosuppressants or as antineoplastics
pathogen
is a microorganism that causes a disease in humans.
microorganism
is a living organism that is so small it can be seen only with the aid of a microscope
pathogenic
capable of producing disease
Bacteria
are one-celled microscopic organisms. Most bacteria are not harmful to humans. The following list shows some of the bacteria that are pathogenic:
-Bacilli
-Anthrax
-rickettsia
-Spirochetes
-lyme disease
-staphlococci
-staphlococcus aureus
-streptococci
Bacilli
rod-shaped, spore-forming bacteria (singular is bacillus
anthrax
is a contagious disease that can be transmitted through livestock infected with bacillus anthracis. Spores grown in labs have been used in biological warfar
rickettsia
small bacterium that lives in lice, fleas, ticks and mites (plural, rickettsiae). Rocky-Mountain spotted fever is caused by a rickettsia that is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected tick
spirochetes
are long, slender, spiral-shaped bacteria that have flexible walls and are capable of movement
lyme disease
is transmitted to humans by the bite of a tick that has had contact with a deer infected with the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. It is named for Only Lyme, Connecticut, where it was first diagnosed. Symptoms of lyme disease include fever, headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash known as erythema migrans. If left untreated, lyme disease can spread to the joints, heart, and nervous system. Syphilis is also caused by sirochetes
Staphylococci
are a group of about 30 species of bacteria that form irregular groups or clusters resembling grapes. Most Staphylococci are harmless and reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms; however, others are capable of producing very serious infections
Staphylococcus aureus
also known as staph aureus, is a form of staphylococcus that often infects wounds and causes serious problems such as toxic shock syndrome or food poisioning
streptococci
are bacteria that form a chain. Many streptococcal species are harmless; however, other members of this group are responsible for serious illnesses such as strep throat, meningitis, endocarditis, and necrotizing faciitis
antibiotic-resistant bacteria
occur when antibiotics fail to kill all of the bacteria they target. When this occurs, the surviving bacteria become resistant to this particular drug. As more and more bacteria become resistant to first-line antibiotics, the consequences are severe because the illness lasts longer, and the risk of complications and death increases. Originally these infections were nosocomial (hospital or clinic acquired) but now these antibiotic-resistant bacteria are increasingly common in the general population
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
commonly known as MRSA, is one of several types of bacteria that are now resistant to most antibiotics
-first symptoms of MRSA look like small, red bumps with a black top. These bumps soon become accesses that require immediate care.
-MRSA infections are serious, difficult to treat, can be fatal, and often occur repeatedly as breaks in the skin allow the bacteria entry. These infections are becoming increasingly present in the general population
fungus
is a simple parasitic organism. Some of these fungi are harmless to humans; others are pathogenic.
-Tinea pedis, commonly known as athletes food, is a fungal infection that develops between the toes
Yeast
is a type of fungus. An example is candidiasis, which is known as a yeast infection. Yeast infections occur on the skin or mucous membranes in warm, moist areas such as the vagina or mouth and are caused by the pathogenic yeast candida albicans. Oral thrush is a yeast infection that occurs in the mouth, whereas viginal candidiasis occurs in the vagina
parasite
is a plant or animal that lives on or within another living organism at the expense of that organism
malaria
is caused by a parasite that lives in certain mosquitoes and is transferred to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. Symptoms develop from 1 to 4 weeks after being infected and include fever, shaking, chills, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue.
Toxoplasmosis
is a parasite that is most commonly transmitted from pets to humans by contact with contaminated animal feces. A pregnant woman should avoid such contact because it can cause diseases in the developing chip such as microcephalous (excess cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the ventricles of the brian)
viruses
are very small infectious agents that live only by invading other cells. After invading the cell, the virus reproduces and then breaks the wall of the infected cell to release the newly formed viruses. These viruses spread to other cells and repeat the process.
ebola
is a rare and generally fatal disease transmitted by contact with any bodily fluids infected with the Ebola virus. Ebola can only be transmitted when symptoms are present. Early symptoms, which usually appear within 21 days of exposure, include high fever, vomiting, and diarrhea. Late symptoms include massive internal bleeding and organ failure
influenza
commonly known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral respiratory infection that usually occurs in seasonal epidemics. Flu symptoms include fever, sore throat, muscle aches, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Complications can include pneumonia. A vaccine is available annually to protect against the most common strains of influenza
measles
is an acute, highly contagious infection that is transmitted by respiratory droplets of the rubeola virus. Symptoms include red, itchy, rash over the entire body, a high fever, runny nose, and coughing. Serious complications of measles can include photophobia, which is a severe sensitivity to light
mumps
is an acute viral infection that is characterized by the swelling of the parotid glands, which are the salivary glands located just in front of the ears. In adults, mumps can also cause painful swelling of the ovaries or testicles
rubella
also known as german measles or three-day measles is a viral infection characterized by a low-grade fever, swollen glands, inflamed eyes, and a fine, pink rash. Although not usually severe or long-lasting, rubella is serious in woman during early pregnancy because it can cause defects in a developing fetus
MMR (Measles, mumps and rubella) vaccination
immunization can prevent these three viral illnesses and should be administered in early childhood
rabies
is an acute viral infection that is transmitted to humans through the bite or saliva of an infected animal. an infected animal is said to be rabid. If risk is suspected, it is necessary to undergo testing immediately so that post-exposure treatment can be stated as quickly as possible. Without testing and treatment, the signs and symptoms of rabies usually occur 30-90 days after the bite, and once symptoms have developed, rabies is almost always fatal
west nile virus
is spread to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. A mild form of this condition has flu-like symptoms. A more severe variety spreads to the spinal cord and brain. West Nile virus is a member of the flavivirus genus, which also includes the virus that cause the mosquito-borne tropical disease dengue fever
Group of viruses that cause herpesviruses
varicella zoster, Epstein-Barr, Cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex
cytomegalovirus (CMV)
is found in most body fluids. It is most often present as a silent infection in which the individual has no signs or symptoms of the infection, although it can potentially cause a serious illness when the individual has a weakened immune system, or when it is transmitted from the mother to her unborn child. this transmission can cause serious congenital disabilities to the chidl
varicella
also known as chickenpox, is caused by the herpes virus varicella zoster and is highly contagious. The condition is characterized by a fever and rash consisting of hundreds of itchy, fluid-filled blisters that burst and form crusts
herpes zoster
commonly known as shingles, is an acute viral infection characterized by painful skin eruptions that follow the underlying route of an inflamed never. This inflammation occurs when the dormant varicella (chickenpox) virus is reactivated later in life. A vaccine is available to help prevent shingles, and is recommended for adults 60 years and older
postherpetic neuralgia
is a complication that may follow herpes zoster if nerve fibers have been damaged during the outbreak. The resulting pain can be severe and persistent
infectious mononucleosis
also known as mono, is caused by the EBV. This condition is characterized by fever, a sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. Swelling of the spleen or liver involvement can also develop
antibiotics
are medications capable of inhibiting growth or killing pathogenic bacterial microorganisms. Inhibit means to slow the growth or development. Antibiotics are effective against most bacterial infections; however, they are not effective against viral infections
bactericide
is a substance that causes the death of bacteria. This group of antibiotics includes penicillins and cephalosporins
bacteriostatic
agent slows or stops the growth of bacteria. this group of antibiotics include tetracycline, sulfonamide, and erythromycin
antifungal
is an agent that destroys or inhibits the growth of fungi. Lotrimin is an example of a topical anti-fungal that is applied to treat or prevent athlete’s foot. This type of medication is also known as an antimycotic
antiviral drug
such as acyclovir, is used to treat viral infections or to provide temporary immunity
oncology
is the study of the prevention, causes, and treatment of tumors and cancer. Most cancers are named for the part of the body where the cancer originated. Cancer can attack all body systems and is the second leading cause of death in the US after heart disease
tumor
which is also known as a neoplasm, is an abnormal growth of body tissue. within this mass, the multiplication of cells is uncontrolled, abnormal, rapid and progressive
benign tumor
is not a form of cancer, and it is not life-threatening. Benign means not life-threatening, although this type of tumor can cause damage as it grows and places pressure on adjacent structures
myoma
is an example of a benign tumor made up of muscle tissue
malignant tumor
is a form a cancer. it is capable of spreading to distant body sites, including to other body systems, and it is potentially life-threatening. Malignant means becoming progressively worse and life-threatening
myosarcoma
is an example of a malignant tumor derived from muscle tissue
angiogenesis
is the process through which a tumor supports its growth by creating its own blood supply. Angiogenesis is the opposite of antiangiogenesis
antiangiogenesis
is a form of treatment that disrupts the blood supply the tumor. Antiangiogenesis is the opposite of angiogensis
cancer
is a class of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to invade other tissues, either by invasion through direct growth into adjacent tissue or by spreading into distant sites by metastasizing
metastasize
means to spread from one place to another. Cancer sometimes moves from its primary site and metastasizes (spreads) to a secondary site, often through the circulatory or lymphatic system. The most common site of metastatic tumors are the bones, liver, and lungs
metastasis
describes the process by which cancer is spread to a new site, and the term is used to describe the tumor itself (plural metastases). A metastasis can be in the same body system or within another body system at a distance from the primary site. Metastasis is a Latin word meaning transition
carcinomas
is a malignant tumor that occurs in epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue forms the protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body
-Carcinomas tend to infiltrate and produce metastases (new cancer sites) that can affect any organ or part of the body
-carcinoma in situ is a malignant tumor in its original position that has not yet disturbed or invaded the surrounding tissues.
-in situ means in the place where the cancer first occurred
-adenocarcinoma is any one of the large group of carcinomas derived from glandular tissue
sarcoma
is a malignant tumor that arises from connective tissues, including hard, soft, and liquid connective tissues
sarc
means flesh
hard-tissue sarcomas
arise from bone or cartilage. For example, an osteosarcoma is a hard-tissue sarcoma that usually involves the upper shaft of the long bones, pelvis, or knee
soft-tissue sarcomas
are cancers of the muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, or other supporting tissue, including the synovial tissues that line the cavities of joints. For example, a synovial sarcoma is a tumor of the tissues surrounding a synovial joint such as the knees or elbows
Liquid-tissue sarcomas
arise from blood and lymph. For example, leukemia is a cancer of the white blood-forming cells in the bone marrow.
stagin
is the process of classifying tumors by how far the disease has progressed, the potential for its responding to therapy, and the patient’s prognosis. Stages can be indicated by letters, numbers or Roman numerals. Specific staging systems are used for different types of cancer
Lymphoma
is a general term applied to malignancies affecting lymphoid tissues. This includes lymph nodes, the spleen, liver and bone marrow. The two most common types of lymphomas are Hodgkin’s lymphoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
also known as Hodgkin’s disease, is a cancer of the immune system distinguished by the presence of large, cancerous lymphocytes known as Reed-Sternberg cells. The spread of these cells compromises the body’s ability to fight infection
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
which is the more common type, refers to all lymphomas other than Hodgkin’s lymphoma. There are many different types of non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas, all of which originate in the lymphocytes. Some are aggressive (fast growing) and some are indolent (slow growing)
Breast cancer
is a carcinoma that develops from the cells of the breast and can spread to adjacent lymph nodes and other body sites. The majority of all breast cancers are ER-positive, which means that they grow in response to to the hormone estrogen
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes (Breast Cancer 1 and 2)
are abnormal genes that carry a higher risk of breast, ovarian, and certain other cancers. These genes are often a factor in inherited cancers
Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS)
is breast cancer at its earliest stage before the cancer has broken through the wall of the milk duct.
infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC)
starts in the milk duct and invades the fatty breast tissue outside the duct. This is the most common form of breast cancer.
inflammatory breast cancer (IBC)
is a rare but aggressive form of breast cancer in which the cancer cells block the lymphatic vessels in the skin of the breast. IBC grows rapidly, and the symptoms include pain, rapid increase in breast size, redness or a rash on the breast, and swelling of nearby lymph nodes
Male breast cancer
can occur in the small amount of breast tissue that is normally present in men. The types of cancers are similar to those occurring in women.
Stages of Breast Cancer
Stage 0: cancer cells are found only in one location, such as ductal carcinoma in situ
Stage I: Cancer cells have moved beyond the duct but have not yet reached outside the breast into the lymph nodes
Stage II: Cancer has increased in size, and/or has reached one to three axillary (armpit) lymph nodes
Stage III: Cancer has spread to the cervical (neck) lymph nodes and/or the tissues surrounding the breast, such as the chest wall or skin. Inflammatory breast cancer is classified as stage III breast cancer
Stage IV: Cancer has spread to other organs, most commonly the brain, lungs, liver, or bones. This stage is also known as invasive or metastatic cancer
Early detection of breast cancer is important using:
-Breast self-examination: is a self- care procedure for the early detection of breast cancer. The focus of self-examination is checking for a new lump or for changes in an existing lump, the shape of the nipple, or the skin covering the breast.
-Palpation of the breast: is a test performed by a trained health care provider to check the texture, size, and consistency of the breast.
-Mammography: is a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of tumors or precancerous cells
-Molecular breast imaging (MBI): a nuclear medicine technique using gamma radiation to detect potential tumors in particularly dense breast tissue
-Ultrasound: is often used as an initial follow-up test when an abnormality is found by mammography.
-Breast MRI: uses magnets and radio waves, and the insertion of a contract medium via IV, to get more detailed information from those already diagnosed with cancer or to look for signs of cancer in patients at high risk
-needle breast biopsy: is a technique in which an X-ray or MRI guided needle is used to remove small samples of tissue from the breast for diagnosis and the planning of treatment. It is less painful and disfiguring than a surgical biopsy
-Surgical biopsy: is the removal of a small piece of tissue for examination to confirm a diagnosis. After a diagnosis has been established, treatments then planned based on the the stage of the cancer.
-sentinel node biopsy is a biopsy of the first lymph node to come into contact with cancer cells as they leave the organ of origination and start spreading into the rest of the body. After the sentinel lymph node has been identified, only this and other affected nodes are removed for biopsy
-Lymph node dissection: is a surgical procedure in which all of the lymph nodes in a major group are removed to determine or slow the spread of cancer in this area. For example, an axillary lymph node dissection is sometimes performed as part of the surgical treatment of the breast
lumpectomy
is the surgical removal of only the cancerous tissue with the surrounding margin of normal tissue. The remainder of the tissue fo the affected breast is not removed
mastectomy
is the surgical removal of the entire breast and nipple. Although simply described as a mastectomy, this procedure often includes the removal of axillary lymph nodes under the adjacent arm
radical mastectomy
is the surgical removal of an entire breast and many of the surrounding tissues
modified radical mastectomy
is the surgical removal of the entire breast and all of the axillary lymph nodes under the adjacent army
Immediate breast reconstruction
begins during the same surgery as the mastectomy when an “expander” is placed to replace the tissue that was removed
delayed breast reconstruction
may be necessary if the surgery is to be followed by radiation treatment. Several different techniques are used to restore the size and shape of the missing breast
Cancer surgeries:
-removing the malignancy plus a margin of normal surrounding tissue
- laser surgery, which sues targeted beams of light to destroy cancer cells
-cryosurgery, in which cancerous cells are frozen and destroyed using a substance such as liquid nitrogen
Chemotherapy
is the use of chemical agents and drugs in combinations selected to destroy malignant cells and tissues
chemoprevention
is the use of natural or synthetic substances such as drugs or vitamins to reduce the risk of developing cancer or to reduce the chance that cancer will recur. Chemoprevention may also be used to reduce the size or slow the development of an existing tumor
antineoplastic
is a medication that block the development, growth, or proliferation of malignant cells. Proliferation means to increase rapidly
radiation therapy
-brachytherapy
-teletherapy
-tomotherapy
Brachytherapy
is the use of radioactive materials in contact with or implanted into the tissues to be treated
Teletherapy
is radiation therapy administered at a distance from the body. With the assistance of three-dimensional computer imaging, it is possible to aim doses more precisely
Tomotherapy
is the combination of tomography with radiation therapy to precisely target the tumor being treated. In this type of therapy, radiation is delivered slice by slice to the tumor and is able to avoid the healthy tissue
targeted therapy
is a developing form of anticancer drug therapy that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. A monoclonal antibody is a type of targeted therapy
adjuvant therapy
is sometimes used after the primary cancer treatments have been completed to decrease the chance that a cancer will recur. The term adjuvant refers to an agent intended to increase the effectiveness of a drug; however, adjuvant treatments from cancer can also include chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy
clinical trials
involve testing new and promising cancer treatments that have not yet received FDA approval on patients who agree to be part of the research
Three main functions of the lymphatic system are to:
- Absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins through the lacteals of the small intestine
- Remove waste products from the tissues and cooperate with the immune system in destroying invading pathogens
- Return filtered lymph to the veins at the base of the neck
Absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins
Food is digested in the small intestine, which is lined with small fingerlike projections known as villi. Each villus (singular) contains lacteals and blood vessels
Lacteals
are specialized structures of the lymphatic system that absorb those fats that cannot be transported by the bloodstream. These dietary fats are transformed in the cells of the lacteals. The lymphatic vessels then return them to the venous circulation so they can be used throughout the body as nutrients.
The blood vessels absorb the nutrients, fats, and fat-soluble vitamins from the digested food directly into the bloodstream for use throughout the body.
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