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PSYC 211 > Lecture 12: Sleep & Pheromones > Flashcards

Lecture 12: Sleep & Pheromones Flashcards

1
Q

Pheromones

A

molecules released by one animal to signal something to another member of the same species

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2
Q

how are behavioural responses to pheromones developed?

A

Behavioural responses to pheromones are largely innate

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3
Q

what are pheromones used for?

A
  • attract or repel other members of the same species
  • signal attractiveness and sexual receptivity
  • mark a path to follow (as seen in ants)
  • signal danger
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4
Q

do pheromones exist in humans?

A

no

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5
Q

Vomeronasal organ

A

Processes pheromones. Activated by sniffing of the mouth/actogenital region

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6
Q

main olfactory bulb and the olfactory epithelium

A

process regular odours

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7
Q

how are pheromones detected?

A

metabotropic vomeronasal receptors

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8
Q

what animals don’t have functional vomeronasal organs?

A

birds, apes, humans

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9
Q

how are pheromones usually released?

A

in urine

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10
Q

Female-to-male pheromone signalling

A

Male mice with functional vomeronasal systems will only attempt to mate with female mice that are in heat.

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11
Q

what type of pheromone signalling is most powerful?

A

female-to-male

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12
Q

Male-to-female pheromone effects

A

Females prefer males that have healthy testosterone levels because of testosterone-induced male sex pheromone signalling

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13
Q

Lee-boot effect

A

When female mice are housed together (without any male urine present), their estrous cycles slow down and eventually stop

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14
Q

whitten effect

A

Pheromones in the urine of male mice can trigger synchronous estrus cycles in groups of female mice

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15
Q

estrus cycle

A

not characterized by bleeding, is signalling broadly to other members of the species. Occurs every 4-5 days in mice

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16
Q

Vandenbergh Effect

A

Earlier onset of puberty seen in female animals that are housed with males

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17
Q

bruce effect

A

The tendency for female rodents to terminate their pregnancies following exposure to the scent of an unfamiliar male

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18
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

Measures brain activity by attaching electrodes to the scalp

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19
Q

Electromyogram (EMG)

A

Measures muscle activity by attaching electrodes to the chin

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20
Q

Electrooculogram (EOG)

A

Measures eye movement by placing electrodes near the eyes

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21
Q

beta activity

A

Typical of an aroused state. It reflects asynchronous neural activity. High frequency, low amplitude oscillations.

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22
Q

frequency of beta activity

A

12-30 Hz

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23
Q

alpha activity

A

Typical of an awake person in a state of relaxation.

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24
Q

frequency of alpha activity

A

8-12 Hz

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25
Q

theta activity

A

Appears intermittently when people are drowsy and is prominent during early stages of sleep (stages 1-2)

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26
Q

theta activity frequency

A

4-8 Hz

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27
Q

Delta activity

A

Occurs during deepest stages of slow-wave sleep; reflects synchronized low frequency, large amplitude brain activity (stage 3-4)

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28
Q

delta activity frequency

A

< 4Hz

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29
Q

REM sleep

A

associated with desynchronized EEG activity (theta and beta activity), rapid eye movements, dreaming, and muscle paralysis; muscles are inactive apart from occasional twitches.

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30
Q

what happens to blood flow and oxygen consumption during rem sleep?

A

Central blood flow and oxygen consumption increase

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31
Q

what happens after rem sleep

A

Partial awakening with body movements after REM sleep

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32
Q

slow-wave sleep

A

stage 3/4 non-REM sleep (also known as deep sleep) corresponds to large amplitude, low-frequency oscillations of brain activity as measured with EEG. This pattern of neural activity reflects synchronized bursts of action potentials in large collections of neurons.

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33
Q

what happens to muscles during rem sleep?

A

they go limp

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34
Q

what happens to an experimental rat after 2-3 weeks of sleep deprivation?

A

loses control of temperature regulation (starts running hot), and metabolic processes and body weight plummets

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35
Q

what happens to an experimental rat after 3-4 weeks of sleep deprivation?

A

it dies

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36
Q

what happens when people don’t sleep

A
  • delayed reaction times and poor judgements
  • increases in stress hormones, mood swings, and impulsive behaviour
  • worse learning and memory
  • hungrier
  • increase your propensity for weight gain, migraines, hallucinations, dementia, seizures, and death
  • Sleep debt is created
  • microsleep
  • lack of sleep often precedes mental illnesses
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37
Q

microsleep

A

often appear, where animals fall asleep for brief episodes lasting several seconds, during which time they are perceptually blind and often unaware that they have fallen asleep

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38
Q

sleep cycles of dolphins

A

Dolphins’ sleep alternates between the two cerebral hemispheres so that they can maintain vigilance during sleep

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39
Q

sleep debt in dolphins

A

created in one hemisphere

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40
Q

rem sleep in adults vs infants

A

50% of human infant sleep is REM sleep
35% of human adult sleep is REM sleep

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41
Q

differences in rem sleep between species

A

Amount of sleep
Ratio of REM to non-REM sleep
Length of sleep cycles (average time between two REM events)

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42
Q

rem sleep in predators and prey

A

As a general rule, predatory animals indulge in long, uninterrupted periods of sleep
Animals that are preyed upon typically sleep during short intervals that may last no more than a few minutes

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43
Q

weight and sleep

A

The amount of time a species sleeps each day is inversely correlated with weight

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44
Q

metabolic rate and sleep

A

While overall metabolic rate increases as mass increases, metabolic rate per pound decreases as mass increases
↑ body mass, ↑ brain mass, ↑ overall metabolic rate
↓ metabolic rate per kg (or per cell), ↓ heart rate, ↑ life span, ↓ total sleep time, ↑ length of sleep cycles

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45
Q

economies of scale hypothesis

A

when things get bigger, their costs per output get cheaper. Large animals benefit from this, so each cell doesn’t have to work as hard to maintain its temperature

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46
Q

why do animals sleep (theories)

A
  • to recover from exertion
  • brain processing
  • waste removal
  • optimizing brain function
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47
Q

blood pressure and heart rate during sleep

A

There is a reduction in blood pressure and heart rate when people sleep

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48
Q

when do synaptic modifications occur?

A

occur during sleep

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49
Q

slow wave sleep and memory

A

The amount of slow-wave sleep people get is correlated with improvements in declarative memory

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50
Q

rem sleep and memory

A

The amount of REM sleep people get is correlated with improvements in procedural memory

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51
Q

information processing and sleep

A

During sleep, the brain appears to be actively processing information and transferring it between different areas both within cells (through gene transcription) and between cells (through network oscillations)

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52
Q

how does information processing occur between different areas of cells?

A

gene transcription

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53
Q

how does information processing occur between different cells?

A

network oscillations

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54
Q

protein concentration in the brain

A

The concentration of many proteins in the brain increases across periods of wakefulness and decreases across periods of sleep

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55
Q

when does protein clearance occur?

A

The clearance of proteins and waste products from the brain is almost nonexistent during wakefulness but is high during sleep.

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56
Q

glial cells and sleep

A

Glial cells (astrocytes) shrink in size when people sleep, increasing the volume of extracellular fluid and promoting the diffusion of CSF

57
Q

why do scientists think big animals sleep less?

A

because waste clearance benefits from economies of scale

58
Q

what causes signalling molecules in the brain to act

A

diffusion

59
Q

what does regulatory control do

A

regulate diffusion

60
Q

brain function hypothesis

A

Sleep may have evolved to ensure optimal brain function most of the day becausehere may have been evolutionary pressure to control and contain diffusion within the brain to such an extent that waste products can now not be effectively cleared while the brain is functioning

61
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

a clear colourless fluid that is continually being made in brain ventricles

62
Q

glympathic system

A

CSF circulates the brain and diffuses interstitial space, thus becoming the extracellular solution that surrounds neurons
As CSF moves through the interstitial space, it clears waste products away before exiting into blood vessels

63
Q

when does waste clearance occur?

A

The clearance of waste from the brain may be minimal during waking hours but high during sleep

64
Q

lymphatic system

A

clears away cellular waste in the PNS

65
Q

what types of animals are better at clearing away waste?

A

Bigger animals

66
Q

circaidan rhythms

A

The daily change of behaviour and physiological processes that follow a cycle of approximately 24 hours

67
Q

what controls circadian rhythms?

A

internal biological clocks

68
Q

what happens if we shift the circadian rhythms of mice?

A

the rat’s activity cycle changes as well–the body adapts to this chan

69
Q

the function of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A

Regulates sleep-wake cycles by receiving direct input from the retina

70
Q

where is the suprachiasmatic nucleus located?

A

in the hypothalamus

71
Q

SCN lesions

A

dramatically alters circadian rhythms such as sleep-wake cycles and hormone secretions

72
Q

t or f: SCN lesions change the total amount of time that animals spend asleep

A

false

73
Q

maintenance of circadian rhythms

A

maintained via the production of several genes and two interlocking feedback loops. When the expression of one protein gets high enough, it inhibits its own production and promotes the expression of a different protein

74
Q

Advanced sleep phase syndrome

A

a mutation of the per2 gene that causes a 4-hour advance in the biological clock and results in a strong desire to go to sleep at 7 pm and wake up at 4 am

75
Q

Delayed sleep phase syndrome

A

a mutation of the per3 gene that causes a 4-hour delay in the biological clock and results in a strong desire to go to sleep at 2 am and wake up at 11 am

76
Q

adenosine levels

A

rise in the brain during waking hours and accumulate with sleep deprivation. Levels fall rapidly in the brain during sleep, even during brief periods of sleep

77
Q

how are drowsiness and the duration and depth of sleep modulated?

A

adenosine receptor signalling

78
Q

caffeine is a

A

adenosine receptor antagonist

79
Q

Signalling molecules released by neurons that show increased activity during periods of arousal and decreased activity during slow-wave sleep

A

serotonin, Norepinephrine, Acetylcholine, Orexin, Histamine

80
Q

where are serotonin signalling molecules released?

A

raphe nuclei in the hindbrain

81
Q

where are norepinephrine signalling molecules released?

A

locus coeruleus in the hindbrain

82
Q

where are acetylcholine signalling molecules released?

A

throughout the brain

83
Q

where are orexin signalling molecules released?

A

hypothalamus

84
Q

where are histamine signalling molecules released

A

hypothalamus

85
Q

serotonin and arousal

A

Positively correlates with cortical arousal

86
Q

serotonin signalling and rem sleep

A

Drugs that increase serotonin signalling tend to suppress aspects of REM sleep without affecting memory

87
Q

norepinephrine and attention

A

Positively correlates with focus and attention

88
Q

what is orexin

A

Neuropeptide released by neurons in the hypothalamus

89
Q

what is histamine

A

Neuropeptide released by neurons in the hypothalamus

90
Q

histamine signalling and arousal

A

Histamine receptor blockers (antihistamines) often cause drowsiness

91
Q

ventral lateral preoptic area (vlPOA)

A

area of the hypothalamus

92
Q

vIPOA neuron

A

promote sleep by inhibiting wake-promoting neurons

93
Q

electrical stimulation of vIPOA neurons

A

causes drowsiness and sometimes immediate sleep

94
Q

lesions of vIPOA

A

suppress sleep and cause insomnia

95
Q

sleep-wake flip-flop circuit

A

both regions cannot be active at the same time and the switch from one state to another is fast
The animal is awake when the arousal, wake-promoting system is more active than the vlPOA neurons
The animal is asleep when vlPOA neurons are more active than the wake-promoting arousal system

96
Q

where are adenosine receptors located

A

on many neurons throughout the brain

97
Q

when is extracellular adenosine most concentrated?

A

Extracellular adenosine builds up during the day

98
Q

how are vIPOA neurons activated

A

by adenosine signalling

99
Q

effect of adenosine on acetylcholine

A

inhibited by adenosine signalling

100
Q

orexin

A

a peptide produced by neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LH). Promotes wakefulness

101
Q

how are orexin neurons activated?

A

Motivation to remain awake

102
Q

narcolepsy and orexin

A

Most forms of narcolepsy are associated with the absence of orexin neurons

103
Q

t or f: SCN neuron activity can mask the influence of adenosine signalling during the day

A

t

104
Q

narcolepsy

A

A rare autoimmune sleep disorder characterized by periods of excessive daytime sleepiness and irresistible urges to sleep

105
Q

what causes narcolepsy

A

Related to the death of orexin neurons in the hypothalamus. They seem to be attacked by the person’s own immune system

106
Q

when does narcolepsy begin

A

Usually begins during adolescence or young adulthood while the immune system is fighting the flu

107
Q

two other symptoms of narcolepsy

A

sleep paralysis and cataplexy

108
Q

sleep paralysis

A

when REM-associated paralysis occurs just before a person falls asleep or just after they wake up. It is often accompanied by vivid, dream-like hallucinations

109
Q

cataplexy

A

when complete muscle paralysis suddenly occurs when someone is awake. It is typically precipitated by strong emotional reactions or sudden physical effort (e.g., laughter, anger, excitability)

110
Q

insomnia

A

Characterized as difficulty falling asleep after going to bed or after awakening during the night

111
Q

what % of people are affected by insomnia

A

approximately 25% of the population occasionally and 9% regularly

112
Q

Fatal Familial Insomnia & Sporadic Fatal Insomnia

A

involves progressively worsening insomnia, which leads to hallucinations, delirium, and confusional states

113
Q

how does fatal familial insomnia develop

A

Typically inherited but can also develop spontaneously

114
Q

how is fatal familial insomnia cured

A

no known cure

115
Q

survival span of someone with fatal familial insomnia

A

18 months

116
Q

what part of the night has more rem sleep`

A

2nd half`

117
Q

non-rem parasomnias examples

A

sleepwalking, sleep-talking, sleep-groaning, sleep-crying, sleep-eating, sleep-masturbating, sleep-teeth grinding

118
Q

when do non-rem parasomnias occur?

A

Can be caused by certain medications or medical conditions. Some of these conditions tend to be more prevalent in children

119
Q

sleep terrors

A

overwhelming feelings of terror upon waking
May include panic and screaming and bodily harm caused by rash actions

120
Q

who is most at risk for sleep terrors?

A

people with PTSD

121
Q

children with sleep terrors

A

usually have no recollection of these events

122
Q

rem sleep behaviour disorder

A

neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus act out dreams

123
Q

who is most at risk for rem sleep behaviour disorder

A

people with more common neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s

124
Q

paradoxical sleep

A

another word for rem sleep because its wavelengths are similar to when we’re awake

125
Q

effect of light on circadian rhythms

A

light helps to keep the biological clock timed to 24 hours

126
Q

flip flop OFF

A

vlPOA is active & it inhibits the arousal system. The animal is asleep

127
Q

flip flop ON

A

Arousal system is active & it inhibits vlPOA. The animal is awake

128
Q

what does acetylcholine do to the flip-flop?

A

inhibits adenosine signalling, turning the flip-flop OFF

129
Q

rem flip flop OFF

A

VIPAG is active and it inhibits the SLF. The animal is not in REM

130
Q

rem flip flop ON

A

SLD is active and it inhibits VIPAG. The animal is in REM.

131
Q

what sleep stage is associated with narcolepsy?

A

rem sleep

132
Q

what sleep stage is associated with sleepwalking, talking, eating, and night terrors

A

slow wave sleep

133
Q

what happens to the VNO during fetal development

A

it shrivels up and is no longer functional

134
Q

examples of pheromones in humans

A

Synchronization of menstrual cycles with females who spend time together
Females that spend time with males have shorter cycles

135
Q

what is the problem with the exertion sleep hypothesis?

A

No clear correlation between exertion and sleep

136
Q

what do neurons using orexin do to the flip-flop?

A

keep it on

137
Q

SLD

A

sublateral dorsal nucleus of the thalamus

138
Q

vlPAG

A

ventrolateral periaqueductal grey

139
Q

Accessory olfactory bulbs

A

Necessary for the effects of pheromones

PSYC 211 (23 decks)

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