learning, behavioral, CBT, memory Flashcards
unconditioned stimulus
the stimulus that naturally elicited salivation
unconditioned response
UR
salivation
conditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus
conditioned response
salivation produced by the conditioned/neutral stimulus
classical conditioning explains ___ human responses
emotional rxns attitudes drug addiction allergies food sexual preferences and aversions psychosomatic disorders
effectiveness of classical conditioning
impacted by:
temporal relationship bt CS and US
*delay conditioning is most efficient (presenting CS so that it precedes and overlaps with US)
number of conditioning trials - the greater the # of trials the stronger and more persistent CR; however, CR is usually weaker in intensity /magnitude than the UR
pre-exposure to the CS or US- slows down acquisition of the CR
classical extintiction
gradual disappearance of CR as the result of repeated presentation of the CS alone
refresher trials are used to avoid this
spontaneous recovery
a CR rarely extinguishes all at once; CR is suppressed rather than eliminated by extinction trials
stimulus generalization
responds with a CR not only to the CS but to other stimuli that are similar
stimulus discrimination
opposite of stimulus generalization- ability to discriminate between the CS and similar stimuli and respond only to the CS with a CR
thru selective reinforcement and extinction
experimental neurosis
produced by very difficult discriminations
restlessness, agitation,
higher order conditioning
when a second neutral stimulus was repeatedly paired with a previously CS, the second neutral stimulus eventually produced a CR
e.g., dog conditioned with tone, and then flashlight presented with tone- now conditioned to flashlight
blocking
once an association has been made bt a CS and US, the presence of the CS blocks an association bt a second neutral stimulus and the US when the CS and the second neutral stimulus are presented together prior to the US
overshadowing
2 neutral stimuli are repeatedly presented together prior to the US
presentation of the 2 stimuli together produce a CR, but when the 2 stimuli are presented separately, only one produces the CR
Watson
classical conditioning - little Albert
counter conditioning
eliminate a maladaptive behavior by pairing a stimulus (CS) associated with that behavior with a stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an incompatible behavior
reciprocal inhibition
counterconditioning
weaken and eliminate anxiety reactions
systematic desensitization
hierarchically arranged anxiety evoking events are paired with relaxation to eliminate anxiety
1) relaxation training
2) construction of anxiety hierarchy
3) desensitization in imagination
4) in vivo desensitization
dismantling strategy
identify mechanisms responsible for benefits of desensitization
*extinction (repeated exposure to the CS without the US) is primary factor responsible for effects of systematic desensitization
in vivo aversion therapy
to treat substance use disorders, paraphiliac, self-injurious behavior
target bx is paired with an aversive stimulus
high relapse and poor generalizability
best when aversion is similar to target behavior
covert sensitization
client imagines engaging in maladaptive behavior and then imagines an aversive stimulus
in vivo exposure with response prevention
exposed to real life anxiety arousing stimuli for prolonged period and prohibited from avoidance or anxiety-reducing response
prolonged (mass) exposure is better than brief exposures
self-directed exposure can be as effective as therapist directed
group = individual treatment; partner assisted works for agoraphobia and OCD
interoceptive exposure (evoking bodily sensations) works for panic
flooding
exposure to most anxiety or fear arousing stimuli for prolonged period
interventions based on CC
systematic desensitization
behavioral sex therapy
in vivo aversion therapy (overt sensitization)
covert sensitization
in vivo exposure with response prevention
implosive therapy
EMDR
Thorndike
study of learning in lower animals would reveal important info about human learning
placing hungry cats in puzzle boxes
instrumental learning - learning is due to connection between response and stimuli as result of trial and error
law of effect
thorndike
response followed by satisfaction will be repeated
neg outcomes have little or no effect
Skinner
complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted as result of the way they operate in the environment = operant conditioning
positive reinforcement
stimulus applied, behavior increases
negative reinforcement
stimulus applied, behavior decreases
negative reinforcement
stimulus removed, behavior increases
negative punishment
stimulus removed, behavior decreases
extinction burst
temporary increase in responding during extinction trials
behavioral contrast
when reinforced for 2 different behaviors and reinforcement for one behavior is withdrawn, the other behavior is likely to increase
generalized secondary reinforcer
secondary reinforcers - acquire value only through repeated association with primary reinforcers (tokens, applause, gold stars)
when secondary reinforcer is paired with several different primary reinforcers (e.g., money)
continuous schedule
rate of acquisition of behavior is fastest - when reinforcement is presented after each response
best way to maintain behavior is to switch to intermittent schedule
intermittent schedules of reinforcement
Fixed interval - reinforcement after fixed amount of time
- low rates of responding
variable interval - interval of time bt reinforcement is unpredictable
-steady but low rate of responding
fixed ratio - reinforcer is delivered each time the subject makes specific # of responses
- high and steady rate of responding
variable ratio - reinforcers are provided after a variable # of responses
- highest rates of responding, most resistant to extinction (slot machine)
matching law
correspondence between responding to 2 or more alternatives and the frequency of reinforcement for responding is predicted by this law
stimulus control
presence of a behavior is affected by presence of discriminative stimuli
e.g., of two factor learning
escape conditioning
maintained by negative reinforcement
a behavior increases because its performance allows you to escape an undesirable stimulus
avoidance conditioning
two factor learning
onset of negative reinforcer is preceded by a cue that signals the negative reinforcer is about to be applied - e.g., green light signals electric shock is coming
positive reinforcement
mostly used
contingency immediacy schedule of reinforcement magnitude verbal clarification prompts
thinning
reducing the proportion of reinforcements
satiation
up to a point, the greater the amount of positive reinforcement, the greater its effectiveness. past that point = satiation - reinforcer has lost its value
prompts
verbal/physical prompts facilitate acquisition of a new behavior
when a prompt signals that the behavior will be reinforced = positive discriminative stimulus
fading
gradual removal of a prompt
shaping
reinforcing successive approximations to the desired behavior
chaining
establishment of behavior chain (baking a cake)
whole chain is important
premack principle
high probability behavior is used to reinforce a low probability behavior
e.g., if student studies while watching tv - tell student he can only watch tv after he studies
differential reinforcement
combines positive reinforcement with extinction - reinforcing alternative behaviors while ignoring target behavior
punishment
applying or withdrawing a stimulus following a behavior in order to decrease the behavior. influenced by:
immediacy consistency intensity verbal clarification removal of all positive reinforcement reinforcement for alternative behaviors
does not eliminate; only suppresses
effects often short-term, inconsistent, and limited to the specific situation
overcorrection
form of positive punishment - applying penalty following an undesirable behavior
restitution - correct negative bx
positive practice - engage in more appropriate behaviors
response cost
negative punishment
removing a reinforcer each time a target behavior is performed (token fines in token economy)
Time out
removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief time following a behavior in order t decrease the behavior
short as effective as long
most effective when combined with reinforcement for alternative behaviors
social skills training
improve communication, assertiveness, problem solving
operant, classical conditioning and social learning theory
schizophrenia, conduct problems, reducing depression when paired with multimodal tx
satiation
reinforcer has lost its reinforcing value
primary reinforcers more susceptible to this
primary reinforcers
inherently reinforcing (food, water)
Tolman
learning takes place without bing manifested in performance improvements (can be latent)
latent learning
3 groups of rats run a maze once a day for several weeks
reinforcement is not necessary for learning
Kohler
influenced by gestalt psychology - role of internal cognitive processes
learning can be result of insight (aha)
insight learning
Kohler
reflects an internal cognitive restructuring of the environment that enhances ability to achieve goals
Observatioanl learning
Bandura - social learning theory and social cognitive theory
most complex human behaviors are learned by observing another person; useful for teaching new behaviors and enhancing existing ones
guided participation
modeling is most effective when combined with guided participation
participant modeling - having learner observe the model and the perform the behavior with assistance from the model
live modeling superior to symboling modeling
self efficacy
person’s beliefs about his ability to perform a behavior
primary source of motivation impacted by: 1) inactive attainment (prior success) 2) vicarious experiences 3)verbal persuasian 4) emotional and physiological states
learned helplessness model
applies to cognitive processes associated with depression
give up any effort to control events
rational emotive behavior therapy
Ellis
emotions and behaviors in terms of a chain of events - A-B-C
emotional or behavioral response is d/t beliefs about that event rather than the event itself
cause of neuroses: continual repetition of certain common irrational beliefs
Beck’s cognitive therapy
CBT
help clients identify and alter dysfunctional and distorted assumptions
schemas
underlying cognitive structures and rules that consist of core beliefs - revealed in automatic thoughts
automatic thoughts
surface level cognitions that intercede between an event or stimulus and emotional and behavioral reactions
cognitive distortions
arbitrary inference - drawing conclusions without evidence
overgeneralization - drawing general conclusions on basis of a single event
selective abstraction - attending to detail while ignoring the total context
personalization - erroneously attributing external events to oneself
dichotomous thinking - either/or ways
emotional reasoning - believing things are certain because you feel a certain way
collaborative empiricism
developing a collaborative therapist-client relationship and gathering evidence to test hypotheses about clients beliefs and asumptions
socratic dialogue
guided discovery
asking questions that are designed to help the client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences
self-instructional training
originally for impulsive and hyperactive children
1) cognitive modeling
2) cognitive participant modeling
3) overt self instruction
4) fading
5) covert self instruction
stress inoculation
Michenbaum
deal with stress by increasing coping skills
cognitive preparation,
skills acquisition and rehearsal
application and follow through
Rehm’s self control theory
brief therapy, usually group
deficits in self control increase vulnerability to depression:
1) self monitoring - attend to neg events
2) self evaluation - inaccurate attributes about own bx
3) self reinforcement - low rates of self reward
Lewinsohn’s behavioral model
depression to a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement d/t inadequate reinforcing stimuli in the environment and/or individual’s lack of skills in obtaining reinforcement
biofeedback
based on operant conditioning
tx of choice for: Raynaud’s, urinary and fecal incontinence, migraine headaches
relaxation = biofeedback for tension headaches, hypertension, general anxiety, insomnia, lower back pain
Information processing model
sensory memory (few sec), short-term memory, long-term memory
short term memory
STM holds a limited amount of information (30 sec)
primary and working memory
5 and 9 (7+-2) units
chunking - helps hold larger amounts of info in STM
long term memory
rehearsal - elaborative rehearsal - relating new information to existing information better than
maintenance rehearsal - simply repeating info with little or no processing
permanent
serial position effect
separate long and short term memory stores
better at remembering the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect); with delay - only primacy effect
levels of processing model
diff in memory are d/t diff in depths of processing rather than to separate memory stores
structural, phonemic, and semantic processing
semantic - deepest level of processing - focuses on meaning and is best for recall
procedural memory
stores information about how to do things - acquire, retain, employ motor and cognitive skills
implicit - automatic - basal ganglia and cerebellum
declarative memory
mediates acquisition of facts and other information
divided into semantic and episodic memory
semantic = general knowledge episodic = autobiographical
explicit - conscious recollection - hippocampus and frontal lobes
prospective memory
long term memory component
responsible for capacity to remember to do things in the future
older adults do worse in controlled settings but better in naturalistic settings
multi-component model
working memory consists of a
central executive- primary component - directing attention to relevant info, coordinating 3 subsystems:
phonological loop- temporarily storing auditory info
visuo-spatial sketchpad- temporarily storing visuo-spatial info
episodic buffer - temporarily integrates auditory, visual, and spatial info
tasks that rely on central exec are most adversely impacted by old age (e.g., backward digit span)
trace decay theory
learning produces a trace or engram, which is a physiological change in the brain that decays over time d/t disuse
forgetting is actually due more to interference than to decay of memory over time
interference theory
forgetting occurs when ability to recall certain info is affected by information acquired previously or subseqenty
retroactive interference
you want to recall something old, but something new gets in the way
proactive interference
you want to learn or recall something new, but something old gets in the way
state-dependent learning
recall of info is sometimes better when learner is in same emotional state during learning and recall
mnemonic devices
formal strategies for improving memory
e.g., method of loci - visually associating items to be remembered with a series of places
keyword method - imagery technique useful when two words must be linked
arousal and memory
moderate levels of arousal maximize the efficiency of learning and performance
low and high levels - decreased efficiency
