Lab Exam 3 Flashcards
Why is the duration shorter when we hold a breath after exhalation (2)
- Rapid build up of CO2 in blood (hypercapnia)
2. Increase hypercapnia is stronger stimulus to breathe than hypoxia
What is hypercapnia
Build up of CO2 in blood
What happens to heart rate when we hold our breath
Slows down
What happens to respiratory and pulse rate during exercise
What happens after exercise
Both increase
Remains elevated to remove excess CO2
What is the formula for CO2 chemistry
CO2 + H2O = Carbonic acid = H + Bicarbonate
What is the control center that controls ventilation
Medulla oblongata
What detects changes in CO2
Chemoreceptors
What happens during hyperventilation (3)
- Increase breathing rate
- CO2 below normal
- Apnea occurs right after
What is Apnea
Absence of breathing
What is Hypoventilation (3)
- Breathing rate slows
- CO2 increases (hypercapnea)
- Causes increased breathing rate
Does expired air or inspired air have a greater volume
Why
Hence we should apply what when measuring volume
Expired air
Because of warming and humidification
Volume correction
Vital capacity is (equation)
Inspiratory reserve volume +
Expiratory reserve volume +
Tidal volume
What is tidal volume
Amount of air inhaled and exhaled at rest
Vital capacity (def)
After a normal exhalation breathe in as deeply as possible then exhale forcefully
What is vital capacity (VC) a indicator of
Restrictive lung disease
e.g. pulmonary fibrosis
What is forced expiratory volume
The volume of air that a person can forcibly expire in 1 second
What is forced expiratory volume (FEV) a indicator of
Obstructive lung disease
e.g. asthma
What is a buffer
A substance that stabilises the pH of a solution
What happens if there is small amount of acid or base added to a buffer solution
What happens if there is small amount of acid or base added to a UNbuffered solution
No change in pH
Large change in pH
How did we show the effects of exercise in lab
- Added NaOH to water (pink)
- Blew bubbles into solution which adds CO2
- Formation of carbonic acid
- Solution cleared
What happened when the individual exercised in the lab experiment (3)
- Increased ventilation due to increase in CO2
- CO2 in blood DOES NOT CHANGE
- CO2 in breath DOES NOT CHANGE
- The time to change solution from pink to clear is roughly the same
What happens if the respiratory rate is increase during the lab experiment
The time of change will decrease
What is Eupnea
Normal respiration
What is hyperpnea
Abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing due to increased CO2 levels
What is dyspnea
Difficult or labored breathing
What is polypnea
Increased respiratory rate
What is tachypnea
Excessively rapid respiratory rate
What is anoxia
Total lack of oxygen
What is Hypercapnia
Excess CO2 in blood
What is Asphyxia
Lack of oxygen resulting in death
What is atelectasis
collaspe of the alveoli
What is dead space
Respiratory passages where gas exchange does not occur
Hyperventilation is not driven by…
CO2
What muscles are used in forced inhalation
Abdominal
Scalenes
Sternocleidomastoid
Why were your respiratory volume measurements corrected with the BTPS factor
Air outside = room temp and dry
Air inside lungs = body temp and saturated with water
List the pathway of air from outside into the alveolus
Nasal cavity Nasopharynx pharynx trachea primary bronchi secondary bronchi bronchioles respiratory bronchioles alveolar sacs alveoli
What is the mucociliary ladder
picks up dust, pollen, fibers etc that come in with the air and transports them upwards in the trachea towards the esophagus where they are removed from the respiratory system and swallowed
What is the main function of the kidney
To control fluid and electrolyte balance
What do osmotic pressures control
Cell shape
What do ionic concentrations control
Gradients
How do we lose salts and water from our bodies
- Evaporation = conduction and convection
- Feces, tears, sweat
- Excretion via the kidneys
What are the 4 systems that regulate Na content
Natriuretic peptide = hormone from the heart
Vasopressin (ADH) = hormone from posterior pituitary
Aldosterone = hormone from adrenal cortex
Pressure natriuresis
What is pressure natriuresis
Increase of renal perfusion leads to decrease of sodium reabsorption and increases sodium excretion
What do these 4 systems also affect
Water distribution
Production of urine
What causes ADH to be released
What does it result in
Increases plasma osmolarity
Decreases plasma volume
Results in:
Increased water retention
What causes aldosterone to be released
What does it result in
Decreased plasma volume
Decreased plasma osmolarity = decreased ECF Na
Results in:
Increased Na and water retention
What causes Natriuretic peptides to be released
What does it result in
Increased plasma volume (stretching of the cardiac wall)
Increased ECF Na
Results in:
Decreased Na reabsorption and water retention
What causes the release of pressure natriuresis and diuresis
What does it result in
Increased plasma volume
Results in:
Increased urine output
Increased Na excretion
What happens when someone who is normal hydrated has isotonic gatorade solution
- Increase plasma volume
- Increase blood pressure
- No change to plasma osmolarity
- Increase in volume of urine
- pH no change
- Specific gravity no change
What happens to the 4 systems with the normal hydrated isotonic gatorade solution
ADH = no change because of no change in osmolarity
Aldosterone = no change because increased ECF volume = increased plasma volume + pressure
Natriuretic peptides = increase because increased plasma volume and pressure causes stretching of cardiac wall
Pressure natriuresis and diuresis =
Increase ECF volume = increased blood pressure = increased GFR + urine and Na output
Why will specific gravity not change
Intake was isotonic
What happens when someone who is normal hydrated and drinks pure water
Increase blood pressure Decrease plasma osmolarity Volume of urine increases pH no change Specific gravity decreases
What happens to the 4 systems with the normal hydrated drinking pure water
ADH = decreases, due to increase ECF volume and decreased osmolarity
Aldosterone = no secretion
Natriuretic peptides = Less than isotonic
Pressure natriuresis and diuresis = Decrease in plasma osmolarity results in greater urine production
What happens when someone who is overhydrated drinks pure water
High ECF volume Low ECF osmolarity Low urine concentration High urine volume pH increase Decrease Specific gravity
What happens to the 4 systems with the overhydrated drinking pure water
ADH = decrease
Aldosterone = no secretion
NP = secreted
Pressure N and D = increase sodium and urine excretion
What happens when someone who is dehydrated drinks pure water
Volume of urine no increase
pH no change
Specific gravity no change (may decrease)
What happens to the 4 systems with the dehydrated drinking pure water
ADH = increase secretion
Aldosterone = increase secretion = increase Na and water retention
NP = no effect due to decrease plasma volume
Pressure N and D = no effect
What is the hormone that is secreted in response to angiotensin II
Aldosterone
A dehydrated person would have high/low:
Urine volume
Specific gravity
Na Cl
Why
Low
High
Low
Because they are secreting ADH, secreting aldosterone and therefore would have low Na Cl as it is reabsorbed
A person who has drunk alcohol would have high/low
Urine volume
Specific gravity
Na Cl
Why
High
Low
High
Because alcohol inhibits ADH
Which part of the nephron is responsible for reabsorption of most of the urine volume
Proximal convoluted tubule
Define the term countercurrent multiplier
creating the concentration gradient present around the nephron in the medulla of the kidney at the loop of Henle
What might the presence of glucose in the urine indicate
Diabetes Mellitus
Where does ADH act on
Collecting ducts
Where does aldosterone act on
Distal convoluted tubule
What are glomerular capillaries surrounded by
Podocytes
What might the presence of protein in the urine indicate
Damage to the glomerular filter (nephritis)
Describe the composition of urinary casts and explain how casts get into the urine
Precipitated proteins
WBCs
Renal epithelial cells
Digestion of starches experiment: was starches and maltose present in each of the test tubes:
- Starch + Water
- Starch + Saliva
- Starch + Saliva + HCL
- Starch + Bolied saliva
Starches = Lugols Maltose = Benedicts
- Starch (+)
Maltose (-) because no enzyme - Starch (-)
Maltose (+) - Starch (+)
Maltose (-) because of Wrong pH - Starch (+)
Maltose (-) because denatured enzyme
Digestion of protein experiments: what was the appearance and explanation of each:
- Protein + pepsin @ 37
- Protein+pepsin+HCl @ 37
- Protein+pepsin+HCl @ 0
- Protein+HCl @ 37
- Protein+pepsin+NaOH@ 37
- A = less
E = wrong pH - A = a lot less
E = correct pH and temp - A = same
E = wrong temp - A = same
E = no enzyme - A = same but yellow
E = wrong pH
Digestion of fat experiments: what happened to pH over time for each:
- Cream + bile
- Cream + Pancreatin
- Cream + bile + Pancreatin
- Cream + water
- No change
- Decrease
- Large decrease
- No change
Why did the Cream + bile + pancreatin have a large decrease
Bile salts emulsify the fat and increase the surface area for attack by pancreatic lipases
What enzymes can be found in the intestinal epithelium
Sucrase
Maltase
Lactase
What enzymes can be found in the pancreas
Protease
Lipase
Amylase
What structural adaptations of the small intestine help to increase the rate of digested absorption
Increased surface area from:
Folds= rugae Villi = folds Microvilli = folds in cell membrane
What are the functions of the liver
Production of bile
Storage of fat
Storage of carbs
Conjugation of toxins to water soluble molecules
What are pancreatic juices produced by
where is it secreted
Acinar cells
Pancreatic duct system to be released in the duodenum
What produces insulin
where is it secreted
Beta cells in islets of langerhans
secreted into blood
What level of pH does pepsin function at
Low
Why does fat digestion result in a decrease in pH
The formation of fatty acids lowers the pH of the lumen
How does the absorption of fat differ from the absorption of glucose and amino acids (4)
Fat absorption requires bile
Increases the effectiveness of lipase
Fatty acids form chylomicrons in intestinal epithelial
Exocytosis of chylomicrons to lymph vessels
What are the things you observe in the urinary sediment sample
Epithelial cells Cellular casts Bacteria RBC WBC Cotton fibers
What is polyuria
Why
Frequent urination
Increased urine production because glucose spills in and draws water with it
What is Polydipsia
Why
Frequent drinking
Loss of water stimulates thirst
What is Polyphagia
Why
Frequent eating
Cells cannot use sugar
Patient must eat more protein and lipids
Exam question:
What stimulates vasopressin release?
What are the effects of vasopressin?
Increase in plasma osmolarity
Decrease in plasma volume
Results in:
Increase water retention
Insertion of aquaporins in corticol and medullary collecting ducts
Exam question:
Describe the renin – angiotensin – aldosterone pathway
- Renin is released when blood volume or Na levels in body are low or when K+ is high
- The system regulates blood pressure and fluid balance
- Renin carries out conversion of angiotensinogen into angiotensen 1
- Angiotensin converting enzyme converts angiotensin 1 into angiotensin 2
- Angiotensin 2 causes vasocontriction and stimulates aldosterone to be secreted
- Aldosterone causes renal tubules to increase reabsorption of Na and water into blood
- This leads to excreting K+, increase ECF and increase BP
Exam question:
Name five things one might observe in a urinary sediment sample.
Epithelial cells Cellular casts Bacteria Cotton fibers Mucus RBCs WBCs
Exam question:
What would the expected results be if an untreated diabetic took the glucose tolerance test?
Higher than normal fasted blood glucose level
Blood glucose level peaks much higher often surpassing renal threshold
Takes 3-5 hours to return to baseline levels within 2 hours
Osmotic diuresis removes glucose
Insulin independent cells utilize glucose
Exam question:
Compare the causes of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Type 1:
- 10% of diabetic population
- Inadequate secretion of insulin from beta cells in the islets of Langerhans
- Destruction of beta cells is due to autoimmune disease
Type 2:
- 90% of diabetic population
- Insulin levels are normal
- However, insulin receptors are resistant to insulin
- Decrease responsiveness of insulin
- Often associated with obesity
Exam question:
Describe the proper disposal of five items used in the glucose lab.
Multi stick pH stick = Biohazard Lancets = Sharps Glucose Test strip = Biohazard Gauze = Biohazard Urine = Sink Gloves = Biohazard
Exam question:
What spirometry test is used as an indicator of obstructive lung disease? Why?
FEV is used as an indicator of obstructive lung disease
FEV is the forced expiratory volume
The volume of air forcibly exhaled in 1 second
Air passageways are blocked or reduced diameter
Takes longer to clear spaces
FEV clears 80%in the first second
Exam question:
Describe the correct conditions for optimal starch digestion under Biology 66 lab conditions. How were these results confirmed?
37 degrees = temp of body = optimal temperature for enzymes
Neutral pH = enzyme works best at
Saliva + starch is best for optimal starch digestion
Saliva contains amylase which breaks down starch into sugars
Lugols tests for starch
Benedicts tests for sugar
1 hour incubation enough time for digestion
Starch (-) Sugar (+)
Exam question:
Small intestine
What are the main functions of this organ? Describe the two anatomical features evident in this figure. How do these structural adaptations of the organ facilitate its function?
For digestion and absorption
Folds called villi that increase surface area for absorption
Villi have microvilli on the surface which possess digestive enzymes to digest food for absorption
Inspiratory reserve volume
Amount of air that can be drawn in after normal inhalation
Total lung capacity
Total amount of air in lungs after maximal inhalation
What is the most common urinary sediment
Epithelial cells
What are the greatest immediate risks to life in an individual with diabetes
Production of acidic ketones = Ketoacidosis
Insulin shock
High blood sugar
Why do obese people usually have type 2 (4)
Adipose tissue decreases sensitivity to insulin because:
Receptor ratio decreases
Receptors damaged
Sugar entry is decreased
If a diabetic took the glucose tolerance test…
Does their blood sugar level drop
Why
Yes, but much slower
Because neurons and RBCs dont require insulin to make glucose enter
What happens when endothelial cells become sticky
What happens as a result
Glycolsylated
Bloackages = reduced blood flow
Why were people asked to fast for 4 hours
To make sure they are close to the same blood glucose levels
