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Bio 66 > Lab Exam 2 > Flashcards

Lab Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What did we use to measure muscle contraction

A

Transducer

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2
Q

Where are the two places we stimulated the ulnar nerve

A

Elbow

Wrist

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3
Q

What is a muscle twitch

A

Single contraction and relaxation due to single stimuli

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4
Q

What is recruitment

What does it result in

A

Increase in amplitude of twitch
Beacuse of increase in amplitude of stimulus

Increased stimulus strength = increased no. of muscle fibers stimulated = greater tension

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5
Q

What does the Epimysium surround

A

Whole muscle

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6
Q

What does the Perimysium surround

A

Fascicles of muscle fibers

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7
Q

What does the Endomysium surround

A

Individual muscle fibers

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8
Q

Each muscle fiber is a single…

A

muscle cell

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9
Q

Each muscle fiber has many…

A

Myofibrils

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10
Q

Each myofibril contains…

A

myofilaments

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11
Q

Threshold stimulus is…

A

the amount of voltage necessary to start a response from the muscle

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12
Q

What is a suprathreshold stimulus

A

a stimulus above the threshold stimulus

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13
Q

What is a submaximal stimulus

A

amount of stimulus necessary to start a reponse between threshold and maximum response

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14
Q

What is maximal response

A

amount of stimulus necessary to start a maximal response

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15
Q

The interaction between what type receptors causes Ca channels to open

A

DHP

Ryanodine

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16
Q

What is EMG

A

the electrical activity of the many muscle fibers controlling the gross anatomical muscle

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17
Q

What is co-activation

A

One muscle forcefully activated, there is a minor increase in activity of the other muscle

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18
Q

What is the reason for co-activation

A

To stablise the joint

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19
Q

What nerve was stimulated in the evoked EMG

A

Median nerve

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20
Q

Increased stimulus results in an increased… of EMG

A

Amplitude

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21
Q

What is Latency

A

The time elapsed from stimulation to start of muscle contraction

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22
Q

What two things need to be known in order to work out conduction velocity

A

Distance - between stimulating electrodes to recording electrodes

Time - to travel from stimulus site to recording site

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23
Q

Conduction velocity formula

A

Conduction Velocity (m/s) =

Distance (mm or cm) / Difference in latencies (s or ms)

15cm / 5ms - 2.5ms =

15cm / 2,5ms x 1m/100cm x 1000ms/1s = 60m/s

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24
Q

What 3 things influence conduction velocity

A

Diameter of fiber
Temperature
Myelinated vs non myelinated

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25
Q

What is muscle fatigue

A

decline in ability of muscle to generate force

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26
Q

What is more efficent to stimulate: the muscle directly or the nerve that innervates it

Explain why…

A

The nerve

Smaller piece of tissue to stimulate
Therefore requires less stimulus energy and it branches throughout the muscle

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27
Q

What main thing occurs during fatigue

A

Muscle can no longer generate or sustain force

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28
Q

What causes submaximal contraction fatigue

A

Depletion of glycogen stores

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29
Q

What two things cause short duration maximal exertion fatigue

A

Increase in inorganic phosphate = slows release of P from myosin

Increase in extracellular K = decreases release of Ca from SR

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30
Q

Oxygen makes up… of whole blood

A

1/5

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31
Q

Hemoglobin has…

A

4 polypeptides:
2 are alpha
2 are beta

Each has heme group with Fe atom to bind with O2

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32
Q

What is unique about red blood cells (3)

A
  1. They respire anaerobically
  2. They have no nuclues
  3. Produced in bone marrow = regulated by Erythropoietin
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33
Q

What destroys red blood cells

Where is it located

A

Phagocytic cells of the Reticuloendothelial system

Located in the spleen, liver and marrow

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34
Q

What is Jaundice

What are the physical appearance

A

Increase in Bilirubin in tissues because of:

  1. increased RBC destruction
  2. Liver dysfunction
  3. Bile duct obstruction

Yellow skin colour

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35
Q

What is used to measure RBCs

A

Hemocytometer

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36
Q

What is Hematocrit

A

Ratio of volume of packed RBCs to the total blood volume

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37
Q

What causes Anemias

A
  1. Decreased oxygen carrying capacity of blood
  2. Decreased Hb content of blood
  3. Decreased no, of RBCs
  4. Iron deficiency
  5. Vitamin B12/folic acid deficiencies
  6. Bone marrow disease
  7. Sickle cell
  8. Hemorrhage
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38
Q

What does MCV stand for and what does it measure

A

Mean Corpuscular Volume

Measures volume of RBC

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39
Q

What does MCHC stand for and what does it measure

A

Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin concentration

Measures average RBC

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40
Q

What is anemias

A

Reduced oxygen carrying capacity of blood

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41
Q

What is Macrocytic anemia

A

MCV > 94 , MCHC = normal

  1. Folic acid deficiency
  2. B12 deficiency
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42
Q

What is folic acid needed for

A

RBC maturation

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43
Q

What is Normocytic normochromic anemia

A

MCV and MCHC = normal

  1. Blood is loss via hemorrhage
  2. Decreased marrow function
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44
Q

What is Microcytic hypochromic anemia

A

Low MCV , Low MCHC

Decreased Iron

45
Q

What is Diapedesis

A

When WBCs leave the vasculature during inflammatory responses

46
Q

What is unique about neutrophils

A
  1. Granulocyte
  2. Phagocytosis
  3. Three lobed nucleus
  4. Purple nucleus, light, small granules

50-75% of WBC
10-12um in diameter

47
Q

What is unique about Eosinophil

A
  1. Granulocyte
  2. Secretions destroy parasites
  3. Bilobed nucleus
  4. Large, red-orange granules, blue nucleus

1 - 5% WBC
13um diameter

48
Q

What is unique about Basophil

A
  1. Granulocyte
  2. Release of Histamine during inflammatory response
  3. Bilobed nucleus
  4. Dark blue granules which cover nucleus

Will become mast cells
0.5% of WBC

49
Q

What is unique about Small Lymphocytes

A
  1. Agranulocyte
  2. T and B cells
  3. Large nucleus with small band of cytoplasm
  4. Light blue cytoplasm, purple nucleus
  5. B cells will become plasma cells

30% WBCs
7 ym in diameter

50
Q

What is unique about monocytes

A
  1. Agranulocyte
  2. Tissue macrophage
  3. Blue-gray cytoplasm, kidney shaped dark nucleus
  4. Will become macrophage

2-8% WBCs
15 ym in diameter

51
Q

What is agglutination Rxn

A

Clumping caused by reaction between RBC surface antigen and plasma antibodies

52
Q

What is Erythroblastosis fetalis

A

Mother had Rh-

Fetus has Rh+

Results in blue baby

53
Q

What blood type is the universal donor

A

O

54
Q

What blood type is the Universal acceptor

A

AB

55
Q

What are the two clotting pathways and what is released in both

A

Extrinsic = thromboplastin released when vessel is damaged

Intrinsic = Hageman factor when vessel is damaged and it is exposed to collagen

56
Q

What is needed in order to activate these clotting pathways

A

Calcium

57
Q

What vitamin is needed for formation of prothrombin

A

K

58
Q

What is the main function of Neutrophils

A

Blood phagocytes

59
Q

What is the main function of Monocytes

A

Transform into tissue macrophages

60
Q

What is the main function of Lymphocytes

A

Specific immune reactions (B and T cells)

61
Q

What is the main function of Basophils

A

Secrete histamine for inflammatory response

62
Q

What is the main function of Eosinophils

A

Secretions destroy parasites

63
Q

What is fibrin

A

Protein that makes threads in the blood clot

64
Q

What is Thrombin

A

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

65
Q

Steps of auscultation of blood pressure

A
  1. Pressure cuff at 180
  2. Blocks blood flow
  3. Reduce pressure
  4. BP = Cuff pressure - Korotkoff sound = systolic
  5. Stopping of sound = diastolic
66
Q

What happens to pulse when arm is lowered and raised

Explain why

A

Lowered = increase
Reason - hydrostatic and blood pressure in same direction = increases systolic pressure

Raised = decrease
Reason - Hydrostatic pressure and blood pressure in opposite directions = decrease systolic pressure

67
Q

What occlusion eliminates pulse reading

A

brachial artery

68
Q

What occlusion decreases pulse amplitude by half

A

Radial artery

Ulnar artery

69
Q

What is contractility controlled by

A

Conduction of APs along motor neurons and subsequent release of Ach at the neuromuscular junction

70
Q

Steps up to Ca returning to SR and muscle relaxing (8)

A
  1. Ach binds to nicotinic Ach receptor
  2. AP moves down muscle membrane - depolarises muscle fiber
  3. Signal moves down T-Tubules - releases Ca from SR
  4. Ca binds to troponin
  5. Troponin moves tropomyosin out of the way
  6. Myosin head binds to actin - powerstroke
  7. After contraction, muscle cell repolarises - Ca transported back to SR
  8. Tropomyosin covers actin binding site
71
Q

What is the normal range for Conduction Velocity

A

Range 1 - 120 m/s

Normally 50 - 60 m/s

72
Q

What is the main substance that causes yellow skin in Jaundice

A

Bilirubin

73
Q

How does the cold affect pulse

A
  1. Vasocontriction of blood vessels
  2. Causes increase in blood pressure and heart rate
  3. Reduces blood flow and pressure in extremities = reduces heat loss from extremities
74
Q

What is the proportion of muscle fibers contracted at:

  1. Threshold
  2. Max stimulus
  3. Above maximum stimulus
A
  1. Few
  2. 100%
  3. Cant go over 100%
75
Q

What can be the issue with chemical agents that cause tetanus

A

Can cause breathing problems

76
Q

Antigens are known as…

A

agglutinogens

77
Q

Antibodies are known as…

A

agglutinins

78
Q

Where are Rhesus factor found in the body

A

All body cells

79
Q

What is heparin

A

An anticoagulant

80
Q

What are MCV and MCHC used to determine

A

if a person has anemia

81
Q

What 2 things does the skeleton provide

A

Support

Articulation

82
Q

What can the EMG allow us to discover

A

Nerve and muscle disorders

Location
Extent

83
Q

What was special about the capillary tube used in the hematocrit test

A

It was heparinised

84
Q

Which gender has the higher hematocrit

A

Males

However the ranges overlap

85
Q

What is a hemocytometer

A

a special microscope that counts individual RBCs

86
Q

How do you calculate MCV

A

MCV = Hematocrit x 10 / RBC count

87
Q

How do you calculate MCHC

A

Hemoglobin g/dL x 100 / Hematocrit

88
Q

What formulas do we use to figure out if someone has anemias

A

MCV

MCHC

89
Q

What does the interval between T and P represent

A

Blood filling

90
Q

Where are ryanodine receptors located

A

SR

91
Q

Where are DHP receptors located

A

T tubule

92
Q

Exam question: Describe recruitment in skeletal muscles

A

Increase in amplitude of twitch because of increase in stimulus strength

Increase in stimulus strength increases the number of muscle fibers stimulated which generates an greater tension

93
Q

Exam question: What 3 factors affect conduction velocity? what is the normal physiological range for conduction velocity

A

Diameter of fiber
Temperature
Myelinated vs non myelinated

range: 1-120 m/s

94
Q

Exam question: What are the histological differences between skeletal and smooth muscle

A

Skeletal:
Striated = regular orientation
Multinucleiated = nucleus along the edge because if cytoplasm - gives appearance of striated

Smooth:
Single nucleus
Unstriated = no regular orientation

95
Q

Exam question: What is the function of neutrophils? how would one identify one

A

Phagocytosis - ingesting bacteria or other material

Three lobed
Purple nucleus
Light small granules

50-75% WBC

96
Q

Exam question: What is agglutination reaction and why is it significant

A

Agglutination is clooting of blood as RBCs clump together

Does this by antibodies binding to foreign antigens

Antigens located on cell surface

Significant because blood clumps cause blocking of vessel which can cause death

97
Q

Exam question: What causes jaundice

A

Increase in bilirubin in tissues

This is because of RBC destruction, where heme is released and is then converted by the liver into bilirubin

Can also occur when liver is dysfunctional or if there is bile duct obstruction

Causes yellow skin colour and sclera in eyes

98
Q

Exam question: How and why does the cold affect pulse

A

Cold causes vasoconstriction in extremities

Reduces Blood flow

Reduces pressure

Reduces EMG amplitude

Reduces heat lost from extremities

99
Q

Exam question: Describe the cause of the opening and closing of the AV valves. How does lub sound relate to AV valve

A

Greater pressure in Atria compared to ventricle = AV valve open

Atria contracts increasing pressure = blood flows through AV valve

Pressure now greater in ventricle compared to atria = closes AV valve to make sure blood doesnt flow back

Closing of AV valve produces lub sound

The opening and closing of the AV valve is influenced by pressure gradient

100
Q

Exam question: Describe the physiological events that occur during the latency period (essay)

A

Latency is the time from stimulation to start of muscle contraction

  1. Motor neuron the AP moves down axon into neuromuscular junction terminal
  2. ACh released
  3. Diffuses across synaptic cleft
  4. Binds to nicotinic ACh receptors
  5. Opens NA channels - allows NA to diffuse in and depolarise
  6. AP generated - moves across membrane and down t tubule
  7. SR release CA
  8. Binds to troponin
  9. Causes change in shape of tropomyosin
  10. Actom ex[psed - myosin head binds to actin
  11. Myofilaments slide
  12. Creates muscle tension
101
Q

Exam question: Describe the conduction pathway of electrical activity in the heart

A

SA node generates own electrical impulses in right atrium

  1. Travels down and across atriums
  2. Causes contraction of atriums via depolarisation
  3. Reaches AV node - slight pause to allow ventricles to fill with blood
  4. Electricle impulse travels down septum via bundle of His
  5. Reaches purkinji fibers located in interventricular septum
  6. Contraction of ventricles via depolarisation
102
Q

Lub occurs after what wave

A

QRS

103
Q

Dub occurs after what wave

A

T wave

104
Q

What happens when T-P interval decreases as a result of increase exercise

A

Less time for ventricles to fill

Heart rate increases

105
Q

What is the ranges for RBC in males and females

A 
Males = 4.5 - 6 million
Female = 4.0 - 5.5 million
106
Q

What is the ranges for hematocrit in males and females

A 
Males = 47 +-7
Females = 42 +-5
107
Q

What is the ranges for Hemoglobin in males and females

A 
Females = 12 - 15 g %
Males = 13 - 16 g %
108
Q

What is the range for MCV

A

82 - 92 micro meter 3

109
Q

What is the range for MCHC

A

32-36 %

Bio 66 (22 decks)

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