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LAB 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Pupil also called

A

Apple of the eye

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2
Q

What type of reflex is blinking?

A

Somatic skeletal reflex
Hardest to override

The cornea is over the eye is the most sensitive area of the body

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3
Q

Corner of the eye, the little sphincter muscle does what

A

Sucts fluid across to the corner of the eye

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4
Q

Anterior cavity contains

A

Aqueous humor

Like water

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5
Q

The posterior cavity of the eye contains

A

Vitreous body

like jello

Keeps the retina in place

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6
Q

Macula lutea

A

Sharpest vision

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7
Q

Center of macula lutea

A

Fovea Centralis (Center of the retina, only contains cones)

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8
Q

Optic Disc

A

Blind spot - where optic nerve leaves retina, no photoreceptors present

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9
Q

Lens

A

Made of protein
Changes by ciliary muscle

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10
Q

Vascular tunic

A

Iris ciliary body and choroid

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11
Q

Fibrous tunic

A

Cornea and sclera

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11
Q

Sclera

A

White of the eye

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12
Q

Retina

A

Pigmented epithelial layer and neural layer (Photoreceptors), bipolar cells, ganglion cells (Axons form optic nerve)

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13
Q

Why are photoreceptors backwards?

A

Tips of photoreceptors burn out leaving garbage tissue, but macrophages can work behind the line of sight to clean up the dead tissue

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14
Q

Black pigment layer in people

A

Absorbs light so photoreceptors are only stimulated once

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15
Q

Iridescent layer in animal

A

Reflect photons of light that are absorbed, night vision but less clarity

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16
Q

Where do all senses go before consicous awareness?

A

Thalamus

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17
Q

Know the layers of the retina

A

Sclera, choroid, pigmented lauey, phtoreceptors …

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18
Q

Cones

A

Cones have higher visual acuity
Single bipolar cell and axon that connect to visual cortex

Require larger stimulus

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19
Q

Rods

A

Many rods are connected to single bipolar cell which travels to visual cortex

Less visual acuity

Rods use summation to reach the threshold

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20
Q

Vit A deficiency and afterimage

A

Rhodopsin falls apart when overstimulated, before it regenerates there is a negative afterimage (Lack of visual stimulus)

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21
Q

What shape is the lens for images farther away?

A

Flatter

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22
Q

Light is refracted by what

A

Cornea, lens, vitreous body

Lens is the only thing that can change

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23
Q

Why is looking at things up close harder

A

Ciliary Muscles are constantly contracted

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24
Q

Presbyopia

A

Cannot focus objects close to eye properly

Cannot round lens well anymore

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25
Q

Snellen eye chart

A

First number : Distance (Feet) Where you stand

Second number: Distance (Feet) Average person can see at

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26
Q

Why are more boys colourblind?

A

A recessive gene on the x chromosome

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27
Q

External Ear

A

Auricle, external auditory canal and tympanic membrane

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28
Q

The middle ear

A

Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), oval window, round window, and auditory tube

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29
Q

Internal ear

A

Vestibule, semicircular, canals and the cochlea

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30
Q

Function of earwax

A

Traps debris, regulates pH

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31
Q

Why is the low pH of ears good

A

Keeps bugs from making a home

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32
Q

Skin in the ear is replaced …

A

Sideways therefore skin cells are replaced sideways and debris moves out of your ear

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33
Q

Three smallest bones in body

A

Malleus, incus and stapes

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34
Q

How does thr tensor tympani muscle protect ear

A

Contracts and dampens the sound

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35
Q

Purpose of the middle ear

A

Allows for dampening of the sound

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36
Q

WHere is the equilibrim recepotrs of the ear

A

vestibule

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37
Q

Why rubbery end of oval window

A

Prevents reverberation and allows for distinct hearing

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38
Q

How do sound waves become nerve impulses

A
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39
Q

How many different semi circular canals

A

3

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40
Q

Where does the olfactory tract go

A

NOt to the thalamus - straight to the cortex

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41
Q

Hygiene in history

A

Could have prevented plagues

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42
Q

Fatality rate of having a baby in the possible

A

20% chance of death

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43
Q

The death rate of birthing after handwashing implemented

A

2%

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44
Q

Lining of the small intestine

A

Thousands of villi

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45
Q

Main function of digestive system

A

Nourishment for food

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46
Q

2 process of DS

A

Digestion and absorbtion

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47
Q

Digestion involves two things

A

MEchanical digestion and chemical digestion (Breakdown of molecular bonds)

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48
Q

Parts involved in DS

A

Mouth, esophagus, stomach,

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49
Q

Accessory parts that contribute from a distance to digestion

A

Liver pancreas salivary glands

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50
Q

4 layers of digestive tract (Vary in different parts epending on fucniton)

A

Mucosa: Epithelial tissue (Always present)
Submucosa: connective tissue (containing lots of glands to secrete enzymes for digestion and lubrication)
Muscularis: Longitudinal and circular layer smooth muscle layer
Serosa: Very thin layer that surround contours of digestive tract (Visceral layer of serous membrane)

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51
Q

Different parieta; peritoneal membranes

A

Mesentery: Coils the SO together and binds to the abdominal wall
Mesecolon: Binds I intestine to the posterior abdomen wall
Greater omentum: Fatty apron like fold hanging over intestine; adipose tissue and many lymph nodes
Lesser omentum: Connects stomach to liver
Falcifrom ligament: Connects the liver to the anterior abdominal wall

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52
Q

Digestion in the mouth

A

Salivary glands (exocrine glands which means they have ducts)

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53
Q

3 pairs of sa;ivary glands

A

Parotid, sublingual, and submandibular glands

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54
Q

Salivary gfland funciton

A

Moistens mouth and food
Contains enzymes such as :
amylase - breakdown of starch to sugar, pH of 7
Lingual lipase - activated at a low pH: in the stomach

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55
Q

The little flap that closes off the trachea

A

Epiglottis

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56
Q

4 layers of the esophagus

A

Mucosa: Stratified squamous epithelium
Submucosa (Very few glands)
Muscularais - 2 layers: Skeletal and smooth muscle
Adventitia - serosa: aelor CT and fibrous CT (

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57
Q

Peristalsis

A

Lower esoThe movement of smooth muscle

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58
Q

4 Areas of the stomach

A

Cardia: THe receivieing area
The fundus: The holding area
The body where all the action occurs
Pylorus: where food leaves the stomach

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59
Q

Rugae

A

Muscular folds of the stomach that allows the stomach to stretch

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60
Q

Extra layer in additino to 3 layers of smooth muscle in the stomach

A

Oblique layer: Mechanical digestion in the stomach

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61
Q

Pyrloric sphincter

A

Allowing chime to enter from the stomach into the small intestine

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62
Q

Goblet cells

A

Produce mucous that lubricate and in the stomach they release pepsinogen

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63
Q

Stomach pH level and reasons

A

Stomach produces HCL: pH 2-3

Acid kills most bacteria
Converts pepsinogen into pepsin which denatures proteins (unravels) does not chemically digest but makes it EASIER to digest

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64
Q

Purpose of mucous in the stomach

A

Protects the stomach from its own acid

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65
Q

Why does ther stomach release pepisnongen (Inactive pepsin)

A

Bc it would digest the stomach cells itself - the mucous layer protects against

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66
Q

Stomach ulcer

A

The wound in epithelial lining

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67
Q

How does stress contribute to stomach ulcers?

A

Reduces mucous production

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68
Q

What causes stomach ulcers?

A

H. Pylori, stress, alcohol, coffee

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69
Q

Parietal cells

A

Secrete HCl

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70
Q

Chief Cells

A
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71
Q

Columnar epithelial cells

A
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72
Q

3 Regions of the small intestine

A

Duodenum (10”s)
Jejunum (3’)
Ileum (6’)

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73
Q

Main site for digestion in small intestine

A

Duodenum

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74
Q

Funciton of the smal intestine

A

Complete digestion of all good tupes and absbtopm pf most nutrients

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75
Q

3 modifications of the small intestine

A
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76
Q

Histology of small intestine

A

Villi (Contains lacteal)
Intestinal glands: Secrete enzymes needed to complete digestion
Mucosa: Columnar epith. cell
Brush border enzymes
Absorptive cells - microbial
Goblet cells - secrete mucus
Enteroendocrine cells - secrete hormones

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77
Q

Is there a mucous layer in the small intestine?

A

No

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78
Q

What neutralizes the acid in the duodenum

A

Pancreas

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79
Q

What is the purpose of pressure receptors in pancreas?

A

As soon as you eat, the pancreas feels the pressure and then it will produce as much bicarbonate juice as the stomach produces HCl and then squirts the sodium bicarbonate into the small intestine (Exocrine portion_

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80
Q

How is the pancreas an endocrine gland

A

Insulin: Cells take up glucose
Glucagon:

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81
Q

Type 1 Diabetes

A

Autoimmune disorder: attacks the pancreas so it can no longer produce insulin

This means that they cannot digest sugar

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82
Q

Type 2 Diabetes

A

Cells have become desensitized to insulin

Caused by an unhealthy diet and not enough exercise (bc exercise stimulates sugar absorption, without exercise the body does not NEED to absorb sugar)

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83
Q

Pancreatic islet

A

The site of alpha and beta cells that produce insulin

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84
Q

WHy is pancertic cancer so dangereous

A

No serosa that surrounds the organ to contain it

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85
Q

Liver cells

A

Hepatocytes

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86
Q

What does the liver produce

A

Bile

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87
Q

What does bile do

A

Demlsifies the fat (Breaks up into smaller droplets) NOT chemical digestion, but mechanical

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88
Q

Where does bile flow

A

Through many ducts into the common bile duct

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89
Q

What does gallbladder do

A

Stores bile for the liver to digest fat

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90
Q

Additoinal function of bile

A

Detoxifies things, border patrol, anything passing from the liver is good for the body to use

Bile gets rid of the toxins and expells them through feces

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91
Q

Large intestine parts

A

Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus

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92
Q

What does the large intestine function

A

More bacteria than cells in the organ (probiatics)
- They eat fiber

Byproducts - methane gas

Forms and solidifies feces

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93
Q

Which intestine absorbs more water

A

Small intestine

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94
Q

Most nutrients are absorbed

A

In the small intestine

95
Q

What do the bacteria in the large intestine give us

A

Vitamin K: Crucial for blood clotting

96
Q

Why should circumcision not happen immediately?

A

Bc the baby’s vitamin K is low bleeding and healing will not occur as well

There are more clotting agents in the human body on the 8th day than in any other day in one’s life

97
Q

Appendix organ

A

A little safe house for bacteria

to repopulate the large intestine a lot faster if they are all washed out in sickness

98
Q

Why is it important that feces are eliminated

A

Toxins from liver are stored in it

99
Q

How does peristalsis increase

100
Q

How is fiber “digested”

A

Drinking water

101
Q

How are BMs promoted?

A

Exercise, drinking water

102
Q

Why are Laxadives bad?

A

The large bowl becomes lazy and doesn’t stretch on its own

depends on laxatives

103
Q

two sphincters of the anus

A

External and internal muscle sphicter

104
Q

Large intestine has

A

Lots of goblet cells

105
Q

What does bile do to fats?

A

Mechanically break them down into smaller pieces

106
Q

What does chewing do

A

Promotes digestion, enhances flavour, enhances wellbeing

107
Q

pepsin digestions

108
Q

lipase

A

digests fats

109
Q

amylase digests

A

carbohydrates

110
Q

What are enzymes

111
Q

What does an increase in temp in the body do to enzyme reactions

A

Inactivates reactions

That’s why high fevers are so dangerous

Enzyme reactions shut down

112
Q

How many sources of lipase

A

3

Analyse
Intestinal secretions
pancreas

113
Q

Function of SI

A

Digestion and absorption of most nutrients

114
Q

What cells produce pepsin

A

chief cells

115
Q

Kidneys located

A

Lower back, retroperitoneal

116
Q

Only place structures leave the kidney

117
Q

Outer protection layer of kidney

A

Renal capsule

118
Q

Why is fat tissue crucial for kdiney

A

Adipose capsule Keeps kidneys in place

119
Q

Lower back pain in association with starvation

A

Depletion of fat tissue around kidneyA

120
Q

Fat layer of kidney

A

Adipose capsule

121
Q

Two kinds of nephrons

A

Cortical (Shorter and in cortex)

Juxtamedullary nephrn

122
Q

Parts of nephron

A

Glomerular capusule

123
Q

Glomerus part of nephron

A

NO, part of renal carpusle

124
Q

Tubules function

A

To reabsorb nutrient

125
Q

What is main function of loop of Henley

A

Water reabsor[tion

126
Q

Brain and kidney

A

Take most of body energy

127
Q

Why does medulla have high sodium content

A

So that water automatically osmosizes out of nephron into surrounding medulla tissue and will be reabsorbed passively

128
Q

Glomerulus

A

The inner part of the renal corpuscel

129
Q

Bowmans capsule

A

the balloon surrounding glomerulus

130
Q

Endothelial membrane

A

Loosely fitting allowing for nonspecific filtration

131
Q

Peritubular capilleries and vasa recta are essentially

A

Same thing but PC in cortex and VR in outer medulla

132
Q

Secretion part of formation

A

Urea removed from blood and added to urine

133
Q

Aldosterone

A

A hormone stimulating the reabsorption of Na in the distal convoluted tubule

134
Q

What happens if sodium is reabsorbed

A

Water follows and moves into the bloodstream (decreasing amount of urine and increasing BP)

135
Q

ADH

A

Anti-Diuretic Hormone

136
Q

Anti-Diuretic Hormone function

A

Stimulates absorption of water into blood

137
Q

3 Steps to form urine

A

Filtrations, reabsorption, and secretion (urea and waste products into the tubule out of bloodstream)

138
Q

Cuboidal cells have what in the convoluted tubules

A

microvilli

139
Q

Reabsorption in the tubules is what form

A

Active transport often

Mircorvilli helps because it provides more space for tunnels

140
Q

Rough ER present in cuboidal cells

A

Produces protein for the protein trapsorters Active transport) Within tubules

141
Q

Collecting duct drains into

A

capillary duct

142
Q

Why are females more prone to UTIs

A

Females have shorter urethras (4cm) while males have a 20cm urethra

143
Q

Sideaffects of urinary/bladder infections

A

Cognitive deficits

144
Q

Transitional epithelium

A

A couple layers thick, the top cells can change shape (Flat to round)

Allowing the bladder to stretch

145
Q

does diet affect urine

A

Yes

pH, gravity (Conc of solutes), and

146
Q

Diabetes and glucose in the urine

A

Glucose blood levels do not lessen with insulin

Too much glucose in the bloodstream for active transporters to reabsorb back into bloodstream once it is filtered out and thus it stays in the urine

147
Q

Which organs are part of endocrine system

148
Q

Main endocrine glands/organs

A

Thyroid, Pit gland, thymus, heart, stomach, kidney etc.

149
Q

Endocrine

A

Release of hormone into bloodstream

150
Q

Exocrine

A

Substance into duct (Only local)

151
Q

Heterocrine

A

Both exo and endocrine funciton

152
Q

Pit Gland

A

AKA hypophysis

Anterior: Adeno hypohysis
5 cells that produce 7 hormones

Posterior: neuro hypophysis
- Not cellular, releases only two hormones (does not produce them)

153
Q

5 cells of the anterior pit gland

A

Somatothrophs - HGH: Growth hormone (specific function in puberty)
Lactotrophs - prolactin
Corticotrophs - andrenocorticotrophs
ACTH
MSH- Skin
Thyrotrophs - TSH
Gonadotrophs - FSH and LH

Know 5 cells and 7

154
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Looks more like Nervous system

Releases two hormones produced in the hypothalamus

Acts as storage for

Two cells that make up the post pit
- pituicytes
-Axon terminations of secretory cells (Nerosecretory cell)

Two hormones:
- ADH
- Oxytocin: Bonds mother and baby
- stimulates birth, produces milk in response to breast feeding

155
Q

Hormone responsible for homesickness

A

Lack of oxytocin

156
Q

Thyroid gland

A

located inferior to larynx

releases hormonese T3 and T4
- Regulate metabolism
3 and 4
- Regulated by iodine

157
Q

colloid

A

Building blocks for thyroid hormone

158
Q

Calcitonine

A

Takes calcium into bones

159
Q

Parathyroid glands

A

4 pea-shaped glands

Chief cells
- produce Parathyroid hormone
: Takes calcium out of bones and puts it into bloodstream

160
Q

Why must calcium levels be kept

A

For muscle contraction

161
Q

Adrenal Gland

A

Located above the kidneys

162
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

Secretes
1. mineralocoricorids- aldosterone
2. Glucocorticoids - cortisol
3. Androgens - secretes small amount of male sexhormnoes

163
Q

Adrenal medulla

164
Q

2 muscels of the testis

A

Dartos muscle and the cremaster muscle

165
Q

Function of muscles in testis

A

To keep sperm at a term 3 degrees colder to mainain fertility

166
Q

Cryptorchidism

A

Fetal development involving testes to fail to descend bw 7 months and birth

167
Q

Why would laptop on lap increase infertility

A

Increasing temperature of sperm

168
Q

How many lobules in testis divided into?

169
Q

Seminferous tubules

A

1-3 contained within each lobule of testis

170
Q

Which cells produce testosterone

171
Q

Structure of the sperm

A

Head containing nucleus and acrosome

Tail:
- Mitochondria
- Middle piece
- Principal piece
- End piece

172
Q

What does acrosome contain

A

Enzymes to penetratrate the egg

173
Q

Benefit of having the sperm swimming so far

A

Survival of the fittest

174
Q

Abnormal sperm percentage in infertiility

175
Q

Seminal vesicles

A

Squirt solution into ejaculatory duct
(semen)
- Alkaline (protecting against acidity of female reproductive system)
- Fructose (For energy)
- Prostoglandins (antiinflammatory to protct viability)

Contribute 60% of total semen volume

176
Q

Prostrate gland

A

Size of golfball
Citric acid for ATP production
- 25% of semen volume

177
Q

Prostate gland enlargement

A

Results in squished prostatic urethra
(longer for voiding)

178
Q

Bulbourethral gland

A

Secrete alkaline fluid
- Secrete mucus for lubrication

179
Q

Path of sperm

A

Seminiferous tubules

Straight tubules

Rete testis

Efferent ducts of epidymis

Ductus epididymis

Vas deferens

Ejactulatory duct

Prostatic urethra

Membranous urethra

Penile urethra

180
Q

What is snipped in vasectomy

A

Vas deferens

181
Q

What hold the female repro structures in place

182
Q

Cyclical avg.

183
Q

Several hormones that are produced throughout female cycle

A

FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)

184
Q

Approx amount of eggs

185
Q

FSH role

A

Primordial follicle

Primary follicle

Secondary Follicle

Graaffian follicle

186
Q

Estrogen

A

Negative feedback to FSH (Strongest follicle survives)

187
Q

Estrogen and Prostoglandin

A

Supress FSH (No new cycle starting randomly)

Build lining of uterus allowing embryo to implant itself

188
Q

Corpus luteum

A

A clot around egg

Used to build up uterus in case of filtration

Disapears after cycle if not fertalized

189
Q

3 Layers of uterus

A

Endometirum, myometrum, permetrium

190
Q

Phases of female cycel

A

Menstrual phase
(lose lining of uterus)
Preovulatory phase
Ovulation
Postovulatory phase

191
Q

Birth control

A

Progesteron and estrogen

Suppress levels of FSH produced
- Eggs deteriorate bc they rely on FS

192
Q

IUD

A

Prevents implantation of embryo

Physical or hormonal

193
Q

Endometriosis

A

When flow goes out into fallopian tubes and into the pelvic cavity endometrial tissue begins growing outside of uterus and can squish fallopian tubes

194
Q

How can you tell if ovulation occured

A

Before ovulation it’s a low 36
after it’s a high 36

195
Q

How many people with STDs are asymptomatic

196
Q

Fertilizaton nomrlaly occurs

A

At begining of FT

197
Q

What are the two stages of the female cycel

A

ovarian and a uterine cycle.

198
Q

Which layer of the uterus is shed during menstration?

A

stratum functionalis

199
Q

Should the testis remain at body temp to promote fertility

200
Q

WHich cells guide in the process of spermato gneisis

A

Seratoli cells

201
Q

Track flow of tears

A

Lacrimal Gland - Lacrimal duct - lacrimal canaliculi - lacrimal sac - nasolacrimal duct

202
Q

Purpose of aqueos humor

A

Maintain intra ocular pressure

203
Q

Glaucoma

A

Increased intraocular pressure from excessive aqueous humor - blindness

204
Q

Two types of bipolar cells

A

Amacrine and horizontal

205
Q

Layers of retina from deep to superficial

A

Superficial*
Sclera
Choroid
Pigmented layer
Photoreceptors
Bipolar cells
Ganglion cells
Optic nerve axons
DEEP*

206
Q

Rod and cones differences

A

Rods - many more rods connect to single bipoar cell therefore increasing sensitivity to light but decreasing visual acuity

Cones are the opposite

207
Q

Action of rhodopsin

A

Coloured photopigment that regenerates opsin in photreceptors after they have been stimualted, a lack in vit A would result in a longer after image

208
Q

Parts of the external, middle, and internal ear

A

External
Auricle, ext. auditory canal, tympanic membrane

Middle
Ossicles (Malleus, incus, and stapes), oval window, round window, auditory tube

Internal
Vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea

209
Q

How does conduction in the ear occur

A

Air conduction to bone conduction to water conduction (to nerve conduction)

210
Q

Two parts of inner ear

A

Cochlea and semicircual canals

211
Q

Cochlea contains

A

Hearing recepotrs

212
Q

Semicircular canal contains

A

Balance receptors

213
Q

Pathway of auditory nerve impulse

A

Vestibulochochlear (VIII) - medulla - midbrain - thalamus - temporal lobe (auditory area) of cerebral cortex

214
Q

Vestibule

A

Part of inner ear containing utricle and saccule which hold maculae, recepotrs for static equillibrium

215
Q

which part of ear manages dynamic equillibrium

A

Semicircular canals

216
Q

Earliest symptom of alzheimer’s disease

A

Lack of smell

217
Q

Sclera venus sinus

A

Draining aqueous humour back into bloodstream

218
Q

Fleshy part of theear frequently pierced?

219
Q

Rim of the auricle

220
Q

Study Pg. 382 and 383

A

Cochlea structure

221
Q

Webber test, rinne testm barany test

A

Webber: Assesses for bilateral hearing loss

Rinne: Assesses for conduction deafness

Barany: Evaluates function of semicircular canals

222
Q

Cribiform plate

A

Seperating nasal cavity and brain

223
Q

Interconnected components of membranous labrynth

A

semicircular ducts

224
Q

interconnected components of bony labyrinth

A

Semicircular canals

225
Q

Crista

A

Detect rotational acceleration/decceleration

consit of har cells and supporting cells

226
Q

What contains perilymph

A

Bony labyrinth

227
Q

What contains endolymph

A

Within membranous labyrinth

228
Q

How many semicircular canals

229
Q

Semicircular ducts

A

secotions of mebrnaous labirinth connecting with utricle and containing equilibirum receptors

230
Q

Ampulla of semicircular canal/duct

A

Widened end of each

231
Q

Cochlea

A

Spiral end of bony labryth

232
Q

Cochear duct,

A

section of membranous labith within cochlea containing hearing receptors and connected to saccule

233
Q

Track flow of kidney blood supply

A

Renal artery - Interlobular arteries - arcuate arteries - radiate arteries - venae rectae

BIO 242 (17 decks)

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