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BIO 242 > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Another name for Human growth hormone

A

Somatotrophin

lipid soluble hormone AND water soluble hormone

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2
Q

Parts of midbrain

A

Cerebral aqueduct passes through
Cerebral Peduncles
Tectum (Posterior)
Substantia Nigra (L & R)
Red Nucleus (L and R)

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3
Q

Cerebral peduncles

A

Paired bundle of axons in midbrain

Carry cortical spinal tracts (motor impulse to spine)
- Carry Cortical bulbar tracts
- Carry Cortical pontine tracts

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4
Q

Tectum (Posterior) parts (2)

A

Superior colliculi (2) – reflexes of head, neck and trunk + Scanning/tracking
) Inferior colliculi (2)
- Reflexes for head, neck and trunk for auditory stimuli
- Startle reflex

Posterior part of midbrain

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5
Q

Substantia Nigra (L & R)

A

Produces NT: Dopamine
- Dopamine controls subconscious motor movements

Part of midbrain

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6
Q

Red Nucleus

A

Part of the midbrain that Connects the cerebellum and cortex (Voluntary movement control)
Good blood supply

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7
Q

Transverse fissure

A

Seperating cerebrum and cerebellum

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8
Q

Major regions of hypothalamus

A

i) Mammillary Region
- Reflex for olfaction

ii) Tuberal Region
- Connects Pituitary gland to hypothalamus

iii) Supraoptic Region
- Main area that controls Pit gland

iv) Preoptic Region
- Works along with brain stem for autonomic NS control

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9
Q

Role of Habenular Nuclei

A
  • Links emotion to olfaction (Positive or negative to smell)
  • 80% of taste linked to smell
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10
Q

Circumventricular Organs (CVO’s)

A

Receptor structures that primary measure pH levels
- Signals hypothalamus
- Wherever there are CVOs there is NO BBB

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11
Q

Lobes of cerebrum

A

Frontal, Parietal, temporal, occipital, Insula

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12
Q

Corpus colossum

A
  • Myelinated white tracts which connect R to L hemispheres
  • Large area in the center of the brain
  • Sensory and motor back and forth
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13
Q

Most well known fissure

A

Longitudinal fissue

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14
Q

Central Sulcus

A

(Front to back, motor (in front) sensory in back)

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15
Q

Types of myelinated tracts

A

Association tracts
- Gyrus to Gyrus (Same hem)
Commissural Tracts
- Gyrus to Gyrus (opp. hem.)
Projection Tracts
- Cerebrum decending to other part of CNS (Thalamus usually and then elsewhere)

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16
Q

3 basal nuclei of CNS and roles

A
  • Globus pallidus
  • Putamen
  • Caudate nucleus

they are all involved in voluntary motor control
- Info on when to initiate movement (Anticipation) and when to terminate a movement.

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17
Q

Limbic System parts and location

A

Hippocampus
Amygdala

encircles upper part of brain stem

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18
Q

Hippocampus

A

Part of the limbic system responsible for
- Linking memories to smell
- Important for memories

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19
Q

Amygdala

A

Part of limbic system responsible for:
Rage, anger, fear, affection
- Antisocial behaviours (serial killer)

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20
Q

Parkinson’s(midbrain more) , Schizophrenia, OCD, Anxiety (Limbic basal nuclei challenes) all associated with problems in the _________

A

Amygdala

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21
Q

Aphasia and areas affected

A

Brocas: Frontal lobe, articulation of speech
- Non-fluent aphasia

Wernickes: Word choice (temporal)
- Fluent aphasia

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22
Q

How does facial recognition occur

A

Temporal lobe along with visual area

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23
Q

Types of.brain waves

A

Alpha (8-13 cycles per second normal) for adult who is awake with eyes closed (not asleep)

Beta: Most common waves, 14-30

Theta: (4-7 Cycles per second): dominant brain wave when under severe emotional distress

Delta: (1-5 Cycles per second): dominant in adult during deep sleep and newborns and infants when they’re awake.

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24
Q

Decussation

A

(motor and sensory pathways cross over in medulla in brain) results in opposite side effected by stroke

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25
Q

Part of brain housing respiratory and cardiovascular control centers?

A

Medulla

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26
Q

What are pyramids in the medulla?

A

Bulges of white on anterior surface

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27
Q

Decussation of pyramids?

A

90% of motor tracts controlling skeletal muscles from medulla cross to opposite side of body

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28
Q

What and where are cerebral peduncles

A

Midbrain
White fibers connecting upper and lower brain areas

stalks that attach the cerebrum to the brainstem

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29
Q

What are Colliculi

A

Superior colliculi: Reflex center in midbrain controlling eye, head and neck movement with visual stimulization

Inferior Colliculi : Part of midbrain containing Relfexcenter for head and trunk movement in response to auditory stimulus

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30
Q

What works with the medulla to control respiration?

A

Pons

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31
Q

Categories of sensory modality

A

General senses (somatic and visceral)
Special senses

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32
Q

Process of sensation

A

Same for every modality

1.Stimulation of sensory receptor (very specific stimulation for specific receptor)
2. Transduction of stimulus – (mech. stim. into electric graded potential)
3. Generation of impulse (if GP strong enough)
4. Integration of sensory input in CNS (awareness/interpretaiton of stimulus)

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33
Q

Receptor feel implies that

A

Every receptor is only sensitive in very particular receptor area

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34
Q

How are receptors classified

A
  1. Location of receptor (internal, external or visceral)
  2. Type of stimulus detected (see below 1-6)
  3. Type of receptor (structure)
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35
Q

6 kinds of receptors

A
  1. Mechanoreceptors – bending, stretching = mechanical stimulus
  2. Thermoreceptors
  3. Nociceptors (pain receptor)
  4. Photoreceptors (light receptor)
  5. Chemoreceptors – taste, smell, fluids (recepotrs in blood, moniter pH, blood chem.)
  6. Osmoreceptors
    (measure osmotic pressure in different chambers of body
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36
Q

Where are propriorecptors located

A

Within tendons/joints

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37
Q

4 Modalities of somatic sensations

A
  1. Tactile (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, tickle)
  2. Thermal –Temperature (hot, cold)
  3. Pain (nociceptors)
  4. Proprioceptive (spindles, tendosn organs, joint receptors)
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38
Q

Describe thermal sensation temperatures

A

Fast sensation

  • Cold
    10-40° C (50-105° F)
    Stratum basale
  • Warm
    32-48°C (90-118°F)
    Dermis

< 10°C & >48°C = pain no temperature sensation

Cold and warm different sensations carried on different nerves.

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39
Q

Process of feeling pain

A

Tissue damage or irritation (chemical, hot water, etc.) → chemical releases kinins, prostaglandins (type of kinin) → stimulate nociceptors (pain receptor)

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40
Q
  • Analgesics
A

Over the counter tablets
- Block the formation of prostaglandins
20 minutes for pain to go away bc it initially it does not allow the formation of prostaglandins.

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41
Q

muscle spindle

A

Receptor that moniters rate of stretch on a tendons

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42
Q

Gamma motor neurons

A

Motor neurons contained within muscle spindles
- Adjust the tension in muscle spindle

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43
Q

What surrounds muscle fibres?

A

Extrafusal muscle fibres
- Supplied by Alpha motor neurons

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44
Q

(Golgi) Tendon Organs

A

GTO moniters how much force is being produced
- If force is too great, tendon organ causes relaxation of muscle (opposite of stretch reflex)

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45
Q

c) Joint Kinesthetic Receptors

A

In/around synovial joints
Monitor acceleration/deceleration.
- Monitor pressure inside synovial joint

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46
Q

Anterolateral pathway

A

Spinothalmac
impulses for pain, temp, itch and tickle from limbs, trunk, neck and posterior head

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47
Q

Somatic Sensory Pathways

A

relay information from somatic sensory receptors to primary somatosensory cortex to cerebellum
Commonly 3 neurons in sequence

1st order (Neuron): From receptor to CNS
2nd Order: CNS to thalamus
3rd Order: THalamus to specific somatosensory area

48
Q

space in the cortex in relation to motor control

A

Greater amount of fine motor control, greater the space it takes up in the motor area

49
Q

Sensory homunculus

A

Distorted sensory map of the body

50
Q

Any sensory pathway that travels to the cerebellum implies …

A

Some element of motor control

51
Q

Two major tracts in spinal cord assisting in balance, posture and skliled movement?

A

Posterior spinocerebellar tract
Anterior spinocerebellar tract

52
Q

What is the significance of the LMN in a somatic motor pathway?

A

All info converges here - last stop before AP goes out to muscle

53
Q

Commonalities bw somatic motor pathways

A

All converge in LMN
All have cell bodies in CNS
Extend out of CNS to control skeltal muscles
All end up at final common pathway

54
Q

Four distinct pathways that supply LMN

A

Local circuit neurons’
UMN
Basal nuclei neurons
cerebellar neurons

55
Q

Local circuit neurons’

A
  • Neural motor pathway
    Circuits in a very small, localized area of spinal cord
  • Typically involve interneurons.
56
Q

Upper Motor Neuron

A
  • Somatic motor pathway that ends in LMN
    Cell bodies in upper CNS
  • Decide on final action
57
Q

Basal Nuclei neurons

A

Converge in LMN
- Connect brain stem to cortex to cerebellum
- Help initiate and terminate movement

58
Q

Cerebellar neurons

A
  • Neural motor pathway
    Leaving from cerebellum, connect to brain stem get info from cortex
  • Eventually also send info to the common pathway
59
Q

What does syphilis do?

A

attack cell bodies of UMN pathways

60
Q

Flaccid paralysis

A

no voluntary or reflexive control
- Muscle is loose and elastic
- If LMN damage

61
Q

Spastic Paralysis

A

– increase muscle tone, reflexes exaggerated (eg..Babinski)
- Typically when damage to UMN (primarily cortex)

62
Q

Lateral corticospinal tract controls

A

distal muscles of limbs: precise movements of hands and feet (eg. Play piano)
- Limbs and trunk

63
Q
  1. Anterior corticospinal cotrols
A

muscles of trunk and proximal limbs

64
Q

Corticobulbar tract controls

A

muscles of head (face, chewing, swallowing)

65
Q

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

A

motor area of cortex is attacked and UMN’s and LMN’s
- Corticalspinal track Aren’t sending info to LMN (also can have LMN problems)
- No cognitive detrement

66
Q

Role of: Vestibular nuclei , Reticular Formation, Superior Colliculus, Red Nucleus

A

Parts of brainstem, All of them are very significant for Involuntary motor control correct movement correct sequence.

67
Q

Indirect motor pathways

A
  • Typically begin at brainstem
  • Terminate in LMN
  • Regulate involuntary actions (Postuter, muscel tone)
  • Impulses follow complex, polysynaptic routes that include motor cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, reticular formation and brain stem nuclei.
  • Regulate involuntary actions: balance, posture, muscle tone, reflexes
68
Q

Role of basal nuclei (with cerebellum) in movement

A
  1. Initiate and terminate movements –caudate and putamen
  2. Suppression of unwanted movement
  3. Maintain Muscle tone (For blood vessels)
  4. Cortical function influence (non- motor processes)
  • Basal nuclei influence UMN for things like cognition & limbic system
69
Q

Disorders of the basal nuclei

A

Parkinson Disease
- Progressive CNS particular midbrain (substantinaigra)
- Not enough dopamine released

Huntington Disease
- Genetic
- Problem with NT
- No control of unwanted movements
- 30-40 years (10-20 years of age)

Tourette Syndrome
- Imbalance of NTs
- Inappropriate outbursts/muscle tics

Schizophrenia/Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
- Problem associated with basal nuclei (could be serotonin uptake)

70
Q

Cerebellum in movement

A

Posture, balance, movement, learning new skills

Monitor intended movements (red)

  1. Monitor actual movements.
  2. Compare intended with actual (movement)

4 Send out corrective feedback.
- Ideally next time movement is attempted feedback allows for more efficient are effective technique takes place.

71
Q

Cerebrum Integrative Functions

A
  1. Circadian Rhythm (sleep and awake pattern)
  • Cortex (reticular formation and RAS) drives and controls awake sleep cycle
72
Q

Stages of sleeping

A

1NREM: Transition from awake to sleep (not technichally asleep) - eyes closed + relaxed
2NREM: Light sleep (7-20 minutes)
3NREM: Around 20 minutes
- Moderate sleep
- BP, temp, and metabolic rate drops
4NREM: Deep sleep (predominant for sleep walking)
- metabolic rate lowest

REM phase occurs every 90 minures

Cycles occur every few hours

73
Q

Most dreaming occurs in

A

REM

74
Q

sleep walking occurs

A

Stage 4 NREM

75
Q

How often do REM phase occur

A

every 90 minutes

76
Q

Non-associative memory

A

Repeated exposure to same stimulus (repetition)
o Habituation: Repeated exposure to irrelevant stimulus (eventually learn to ignore it)
o Sensitization: Repeated exposure to noxious stimulus, over time u increase response (Avoiding pain or discomfort)

77
Q

What is a declarative memory

A

Memory of event that has been spoken out or written down (association area of cortex for conscious recall)

78
Q

What is a procedural memory

A

Learning and now memorizing (motor skills)
Premotor area, cerebellum, basal nuclei
To be successful the info must be the correct information
Immediate memory (know the present state)
- Short term

79
Q

Describe route of CSF

A

Choroid plexus in lat V
Interventricular foramina
3rd V
Aqueduct of Midbrain (Cerebral aqueduct)
4th V
Three openings in roof
Subarachnoid space
Central canal
Rest of space around CSF
Reabsorbed by arachnoid villas

80
Q

medulla

A

Voluntary movement of limbs and trunk
Cardiac and respiratory centers
vomiting, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and hiccupping reflexes
Instruct cerebellum in skill learning

81
Q

Pons

A

efficiency and coordination of voluntary motor neurons
controlling breathing, chewing, eye movement, taste and salivation, facial movement, and balance and equilibrium

82
Q

Midbrain

A

Eye tracking and scanning
Movement of eys, head and trunk in response to visual stimuli and auditory stimuli

83
Q

Cerebellum

A

Smoothing out skeletal muscle contractions and directing complex muscle movements
subconscious parts of skeletal muscle movements and contributes to equilibrium and balance

84
Q

Thalamus role

A

relays most sensory input to the cerebrum and transmits info from the cerebellum to the primary motor cortex to aid in motor functions
Keeps person conscious

85
Q

Hypothalamus

A

control ANS activities, it produces and inhibits hormones and regulates emotional and behavioural patterns alongside the limbic system. This organ of the brain regulates eating and drinking, circadian rhythms, and acts as the thermostat for the body

86
Q

Where do all second-order sensory neurons go first?

A

Thalamus

87
Q

Fornix

A

Bundle of myleinated axons connecting structures within limbic system

88
Q

ducts of fourth ventricle

A

Lateral apertures and median aperture

89
Q

ionotropic vs metabotropic

A

ion: NT Direct binding

Meta: Second messenenger system

90
Q

Cauda equina vs conus medullis

A

Cauda: Horse tail

Conus: End of spinal cord proper

91
Q

function of F cells

A
  • F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide
    o Increases exocrine function (digestive juices ) of pancreases and stimulates gallbladder to secrete bile (active in digestion process)
92
Q

What is responsibile for fever

A

An elevation of the hypothalamus caused by interleukins An elevation of the hypothalamus caused by interleukins

93
Q

hapten

A

Smaller antigen that is reactive with immunity system, but will not be immunogenic (Not strong enough to get immune system inclvoled)
- Instead the smaller hapten will combine with larger antigen and then cause immunogenic response

94
Q

Which cells must recognize foreign antigen to generate immune response

A

, B and T cells must recognize that a foreign antigen is present.

95
Q

Name the enteroendocrine cells of the mucosa of the SI and their secretions

A

S cells - secretin
CCK - cells - cholecystokinin
K cells - GIP (glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide)

96
Q

Non hormonal cells of mucosa of SI

A

Paneth cells: Secretes lysosomes (Phagocytes)
Goblet cells: Secretes mucous
Lacteal : Entrance to lymph system in the middle of each intestinal villus
Villli
Microvilli
Intestinal glands
Lamina propria

97
Q

Where are Brunners Glands located?

A

Submucosa of SI

98
Q

How are Vitatmins reabsorbed in the SI?

A

Along with triglycerides in Micelles

99
Q

What does LI absorb

A

Fine tuning vit absorbtion
Water

100
Q

Does LI contain villi Or circular folds?

A

No

101
Q

Renal papilla and columns

A
  • Renal Papilla: Skinny End/apex of each renal pyramid
  • Renal Columns: Region bw the pyramids
102
Q

Intercalated and principal cells

A
  • Principle Cells: Found in last part of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
    o Primarily responsible for determining final concentration of urine (Thick or thin)
    o Have receptors (Protein is inserted into those cells) for antidiuretic hormone.
  • Intercalated Cells: Also found mainly on collecting ducts and distal convoluted tubule.
    o Monitor pH of the urine (Typically slightly acidic)
    o Hanging on to bicarbonate or letting nitrate out allows for regulation of pH
103
Q

: What percentage of the blood that came into the capsule ends (from afferent arteriole) up as filtrate.

A

16-20%

104
Q

Basil lamina in glomerulus

A

Contains smaller holes, stops blood plasma proteins from escaping

105
Q

Colloid

A

Plasma proteins in blood

106
Q

What does angiotensin 2 do BESIDES stimulate aldosterone

A

Constricts afferent/efferent arterioles to decrease GFR

Reabsorption of Na+, Cl-, H2O in PCT by increasing the number of Na+/H+ antiporters

107
Q

ACE

A

Angiotensin converting enzyme

108
Q

What releases ANP?

A

Stretch in the heart as caused by excesssibe blood volume

109
Q

Which hormones decrease GFR?

A

ADH, Angiotensin 2, Aldosterone

ANP increases GFR

110
Q

When does obligatory reabsorption occur

A

When water is absorbed along with solutes (NaCl)

111
Q

When does facultative reabsorption occur?

A

In collecting ducts under influence of ADH

112
Q

Is the ascending loop of henle permeable?

A

No, Na and Cl are actively pumped out

113
Q

Cells responsible for releasing Renin

A

JG cells, start the RAAS

114
Q

What is a problem with avoiding acidosis

A

CO3 (carbonic acid) not lost in urine but is absorbed in blood

115
Q

Stroma (ovary)

A

Connective tissue surrounding the follicles

116
Q

peg cells

A

Secrete nutrients to capacitate the sperm for fertilization in the ampulla

117
Q
A

BIO 242 (17 decks)

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