Final Flashcards
Another name for Human growth hormone
Somatotrophin
lipid soluble hormone AND water soluble hormone
Parts of midbrain
Cerebral aqueduct passes through
Cerebral Peduncles
Tectum (Posterior)
Substantia Nigra (L & R)
Red Nucleus (L and R)
Cerebral peduncles
Paired bundle of axons in midbrain
Carry cortical spinal tracts (motor impulse to spine)
- Carry Cortical bulbar tracts
- Carry Cortical pontine tracts
Tectum (Posterior) parts (2)
Superior colliculi (2) – reflexes of head, neck and trunk + Scanning/tracking
) Inferior colliculi (2)
- Reflexes for head, neck and trunk for auditory stimuli
- Startle reflex
Posterior part of midbrain
Substantia Nigra (L & R)
Produces NT: Dopamine
- Dopamine controls subconscious motor movements
Part of midbrain
Red Nucleus
Part of the midbrain that Connects the cerebellum and cortex (Voluntary movement control)
Good blood supply
Transverse fissure
Seperating cerebrum and cerebellum
Major regions of hypothalamus
i) Mammillary Region
- Reflex for olfaction
ii) Tuberal Region
- Connects Pituitary gland to hypothalamus
iii) Supraoptic Region
- Main area that controls Pit gland
iv) Preoptic Region
- Works along with brain stem for autonomic NS control
Role of Habenular Nuclei
- Links emotion to olfaction (Positive or negative to smell)
- 80% of taste linked to smell
Circumventricular Organs (CVO’s)
Receptor structures that primary measure pH levels
- Signals hypothalamus
- Wherever there are CVOs there is NO BBB
Lobes of cerebrum
Frontal, Parietal, temporal, occipital, Insula
Corpus colossum
- Myelinated white tracts which connect R to L hemispheres
- Large area in the center of the brain
- Sensory and motor back and forth
Most well known fissure
Longitudinal fissue
Central Sulcus
(Front to back, motor (in front) sensory in back)
Types of myelinated tracts
Association tracts
- Gyrus to Gyrus (Same hem)
Commissural Tracts
- Gyrus to Gyrus (opp. hem.)
Projection Tracts
- Cerebrum decending to other part of CNS (Thalamus usually and then elsewhere)
3 basal nuclei of CNS and roles
- Globus pallidus
- Putamen
- Caudate nucleus
they are all involved in voluntary motor control
- Info on when to initiate movement (Anticipation) and when to terminate a movement.
Limbic System parts and location
Hippocampus
Amygdala
encircles upper part of brain stem
Hippocampus
Part of the limbic system responsible for
- Linking memories to smell
- Important for memories
Amygdala
Part of limbic system responsible for:
Rage, anger, fear, affection
- Antisocial behaviours (serial killer)
Parkinson’s(midbrain more) , Schizophrenia, OCD, Anxiety (Limbic basal nuclei challenes) all associated with problems in the _________
Amygdala
Aphasia and areas affected
Brocas: Frontal lobe, articulation of speech
- Non-fluent aphasia
Wernickes: Word choice (temporal)
- Fluent aphasia
How does facial recognition occur
Temporal lobe along with visual area
Types of.brain waves
Alpha (8-13 cycles per second normal) for adult who is awake with eyes closed (not asleep)
Beta: Most common waves, 14-30
Theta: (4-7 Cycles per second): dominant brain wave when under severe emotional distress
Delta: (1-5 Cycles per second): dominant in adult during deep sleep and newborns and infants when they’re awake.
Decussation
(motor and sensory pathways cross over in medulla in brain) results in opposite side effected by stroke
Part of brain housing respiratory and cardiovascular control centers?
Medulla
What are pyramids in the medulla?
Bulges of white on anterior surface
Decussation of pyramids?
90% of motor tracts controlling skeletal muscles from medulla cross to opposite side of body
What and where are cerebral peduncles
Midbrain
White fibers connecting upper and lower brain areas
stalks that attach the cerebrum to the brainstem
What are Colliculi
Superior colliculi: Reflex center in midbrain controlling eye, head and neck movement with visual stimulization
Inferior Colliculi : Part of midbrain containing Relfexcenter for head and trunk movement in response to auditory stimulus
What works with the medulla to control respiration?
Pons
Categories of sensory modality
General senses (somatic and visceral)
Special senses
Process of sensation
Same for every modality
1.Stimulation of sensory receptor (very specific stimulation for specific receptor)
2. Transduction of stimulus – (mech. stim. into electric graded potential)
3. Generation of impulse (if GP strong enough)
4. Integration of sensory input in CNS (awareness/interpretaiton of stimulus)
Receptor feel implies that
Every receptor is only sensitive in very particular receptor area
How are receptors classified
- Location of receptor (internal, external or visceral)
- Type of stimulus detected (see below 1-6)
- Type of receptor (structure)
6 kinds of receptors
- Mechanoreceptors – bending, stretching = mechanical stimulus
- Thermoreceptors
- Nociceptors (pain receptor)
- Photoreceptors (light receptor)
- Chemoreceptors – taste, smell, fluids (recepotrs in blood, moniter pH, blood chem.)
- Osmoreceptors
(measure osmotic pressure in different chambers of body
Where are propriorecptors located
Within tendons/joints
4 Modalities of somatic sensations
- Tactile (touch, pressure, vibration, itch, tickle)
- Thermal –Temperature (hot, cold)
- Pain (nociceptors)
- Proprioceptive (spindles, tendosn organs, joint receptors)
Describe thermal sensation temperatures
Fast sensation
- Cold
10-40° C (50-105° F)
Stratum basale - Warm
32-48°C (90-118°F)
Dermis
< 10°C & >48°C = pain no temperature sensation
Cold and warm different sensations carried on different nerves.
Process of feeling pain
Tissue damage or irritation (chemical, hot water, etc.) → chemical releases kinins, prostaglandins (type of kinin) → stimulate nociceptors (pain receptor)
- Analgesics
Over the counter tablets
- Block the formation of prostaglandins
20 minutes for pain to go away bc it initially it does not allow the formation of prostaglandins.
muscle spindle
Receptor that moniters rate of stretch on a tendons
Gamma motor neurons
Motor neurons contained within muscle spindles
- Adjust the tension in muscle spindle
What surrounds muscle fibres?
Extrafusal muscle fibres
- Supplied by Alpha motor neurons
(Golgi) Tendon Organs
GTO moniters how much force is being produced
- If force is too great, tendon organ causes relaxation of muscle (opposite of stretch reflex)
c) Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
In/around synovial joints
Monitor acceleration/deceleration.
- Monitor pressure inside synovial joint
Anterolateral pathway
Spinothalmac
impulses for pain, temp, itch and tickle from limbs, trunk, neck and posterior head
Somatic Sensory Pathways
relay information from somatic sensory receptors to primary somatosensory cortex to cerebellum
Commonly 3 neurons in sequence
1st order (Neuron): From receptor to CNS
2nd Order: CNS to thalamus
3rd Order: THalamus to specific somatosensory area
space in the cortex in relation to motor control
Greater amount of fine motor control, greater the space it takes up in the motor area
Sensory homunculus
Distorted sensory map of the body
Any sensory pathway that travels to the cerebellum implies …
Some element of motor control
Two major tracts in spinal cord assisting in balance, posture and skliled movement?
Posterior spinocerebellar tract
Anterior spinocerebellar tract
What is the significance of the LMN in a somatic motor pathway?
All info converges here - last stop before AP goes out to muscle
Commonalities bw somatic motor pathways
All converge in LMN
All have cell bodies in CNS
Extend out of CNS to control skeltal muscles
All end up at final common pathway
Four distinct pathways that supply LMN
Local circuit neurons’
UMN
Basal nuclei neurons
cerebellar neurons
Local circuit neurons’
- Neural motor pathway
Circuits in a very small, localized area of spinal cord - Typically involve interneurons.
Upper Motor Neuron
- Somatic motor pathway that ends in LMN
Cell bodies in upper CNS - Decide on final action
Basal Nuclei neurons
Converge in LMN
- Connect brain stem to cortex to cerebellum
- Help initiate and terminate movement
Cerebellar neurons
- Neural motor pathway
Leaving from cerebellum, connect to brain stem get info from cortex - Eventually also send info to the common pathway
What does syphilis do?
attack cell bodies of UMN pathways
Flaccid paralysis
no voluntary or reflexive control
- Muscle is loose and elastic
- If LMN damage
Spastic Paralysis
– increase muscle tone, reflexes exaggerated (eg..Babinski)
- Typically when damage to UMN (primarily cortex)
Lateral corticospinal tract controls
distal muscles of limbs: precise movements of hands and feet (eg. Play piano)
- Limbs and trunk
- Anterior corticospinal cotrols
muscles of trunk and proximal limbs
Corticobulbar tract controls
muscles of head (face, chewing, swallowing)
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
motor area of cortex is attacked and UMN’s and LMN’s
- Corticalspinal track Aren’t sending info to LMN (also can have LMN problems)
- No cognitive detrement
Role of: Vestibular nuclei , Reticular Formation, Superior Colliculus, Red Nucleus
Parts of brainstem, All of them are very significant for Involuntary motor control correct movement correct sequence.
Indirect motor pathways
- Typically begin at brainstem
- Terminate in LMN
- Regulate involuntary actions (Postuter, muscel tone)
- Impulses follow complex, polysynaptic routes that include motor cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, cerebellum, reticular formation and brain stem nuclei.
- Regulate involuntary actions: balance, posture, muscle tone, reflexes
Role of basal nuclei (with cerebellum) in movement
- Initiate and terminate movements –caudate and putamen
- Suppression of unwanted movement
- Maintain Muscle tone (For blood vessels)
- Cortical function influence (non- motor processes)
- Basal nuclei influence UMN for things like cognition & limbic system
Disorders of the basal nuclei
Parkinson Disease
- Progressive CNS particular midbrain (substantinaigra)
- Not enough dopamine released
Huntington Disease
- Genetic
- Problem with NT
- No control of unwanted movements
- 30-40 years (10-20 years of age)
Tourette Syndrome
- Imbalance of NTs
- Inappropriate outbursts/muscle tics
Schizophrenia/Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
- Problem associated with basal nuclei (could be serotonin uptake)
Cerebellum in movement
Posture, balance, movement, learning new skills
Monitor intended movements (red)
- Monitor actual movements.
- Compare intended with actual (movement)
4 Send out corrective feedback.
- Ideally next time movement is attempted feedback allows for more efficient are effective technique takes place.
Cerebrum Integrative Functions
- Circadian Rhythm (sleep and awake pattern)
- Cortex (reticular formation and RAS) drives and controls awake sleep cycle
Stages of sleeping
1NREM: Transition from awake to sleep (not technichally asleep) - eyes closed + relaxed
2NREM: Light sleep (7-20 minutes)
3NREM: Around 20 minutes
- Moderate sleep
- BP, temp, and metabolic rate drops
4NREM: Deep sleep (predominant for sleep walking)
- metabolic rate lowest
REM phase occurs every 90 minures
Cycles occur every few hours
Most dreaming occurs in
REM
sleep walking occurs
Stage 4 NREM
How often do REM phase occur
every 90 minutes
Non-associative memory
Repeated exposure to same stimulus (repetition)
o Habituation: Repeated exposure to irrelevant stimulus (eventually learn to ignore it)
o Sensitization: Repeated exposure to noxious stimulus, over time u increase response (Avoiding pain or discomfort)
What is a declarative memory
Memory of event that has been spoken out or written down (association area of cortex for conscious recall)
What is a procedural memory
Learning and now memorizing (motor skills)
Premotor area, cerebellum, basal nuclei
To be successful the info must be the correct information
Immediate memory (know the present state)
- Short term
Describe route of CSF
Choroid plexus in lat V
Interventricular foramina
3rd V
Aqueduct of Midbrain (Cerebral aqueduct)
4th V
Three openings in roof
Subarachnoid space
Central canal
Rest of space around CSF
Reabsorbed by arachnoid villas
medulla
Voluntary movement of limbs and trunk
Cardiac and respiratory centers
vomiting, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and hiccupping reflexes
Instruct cerebellum in skill learning
Pons
efficiency and coordination of voluntary motor neurons
controlling breathing, chewing, eye movement, taste and salivation, facial movement, and balance and equilibrium
Midbrain
Eye tracking and scanning
Movement of eys, head and trunk in response to visual stimuli and auditory stimuli
Cerebellum
Smoothing out skeletal muscle contractions and directing complex muscle movements
subconscious parts of skeletal muscle movements and contributes to equilibrium and balance
Thalamus role
relays most sensory input to the cerebrum and transmits info from the cerebellum to the primary motor cortex to aid in motor functions
Keeps person conscious
Hypothalamus
control ANS activities, it produces and inhibits hormones and regulates emotional and behavioural patterns alongside the limbic system. This organ of the brain regulates eating and drinking, circadian rhythms, and acts as the thermostat for the body
Where do all second-order sensory neurons go first?
Thalamus
Fornix
Bundle of myleinated axons connecting structures within limbic system
ducts of fourth ventricle
Lateral apertures and median aperture
ionotropic vs metabotropic
ion: NT Direct binding
Meta: Second messenenger system
Cauda equina vs conus medullis
Cauda: Horse tail
Conus: End of spinal cord proper
function of F cells
- F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide
o Increases exocrine function (digestive juices ) of pancreases and stimulates gallbladder to secrete bile (active in digestion process)
What is responsibile for fever
An elevation of the hypothalamus caused by interleukins An elevation of the hypothalamus caused by interleukins
hapten
Smaller antigen that is reactive with immunity system, but will not be immunogenic (Not strong enough to get immune system inclvoled)
- Instead the smaller hapten will combine with larger antigen and then cause immunogenic response
Which cells must recognize foreign antigen to generate immune response
, B and T cells must recognize that a foreign antigen is present.
Name the enteroendocrine cells of the mucosa of the SI and their secretions
S cells - secretin
CCK - cells - cholecystokinin
K cells - GIP (glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide)
Non hormonal cells of mucosa of SI
Paneth cells: Secretes lysosomes (Phagocytes)
Goblet cells: Secretes mucous
Lacteal : Entrance to lymph system in the middle of each intestinal villus
Villli
Microvilli
Intestinal glands
Lamina propria
Where are Brunners Glands located?
Submucosa of SI
How are Vitatmins reabsorbed in the SI?
Along with triglycerides in Micelles
What does LI absorb
Fine tuning vit absorbtion
Water
Does LI contain villi Or circular folds?
No
Renal papilla and columns
- Renal Papilla: Skinny End/apex of each renal pyramid
- Renal Columns: Region bw the pyramids
Intercalated and principal cells
- Principle Cells: Found in last part of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
o Primarily responsible for determining final concentration of urine (Thick or thin)
o Have receptors (Protein is inserted into those cells) for antidiuretic hormone. - Intercalated Cells: Also found mainly on collecting ducts and distal convoluted tubule.
o Monitor pH of the urine (Typically slightly acidic)
o Hanging on to bicarbonate or letting nitrate out allows for regulation of pH
: What percentage of the blood that came into the capsule ends (from afferent arteriole) up as filtrate.
16-20%
Basil lamina in glomerulus
Contains smaller holes, stops blood plasma proteins from escaping
Colloid
Plasma proteins in blood
What does angiotensin 2 do BESIDES stimulate aldosterone
Constricts afferent/efferent arterioles to decrease GFR
Reabsorption of Na+, Cl-, H2O in PCT by increasing the number of Na+/H+ antiporters
ACE
Angiotensin converting enzyme
What releases ANP?
Stretch in the heart as caused by excesssibe blood volume
Which hormones decrease GFR?
ADH, Angiotensin 2, Aldosterone
ANP increases GFR
When does obligatory reabsorption occur
When water is absorbed along with solutes (NaCl)
When does facultative reabsorption occur?
In collecting ducts under influence of ADH
Is the ascending loop of henle permeable?
No, Na and Cl are actively pumped out
Cells responsible for releasing Renin
JG cells, start the RAAS
What is a problem with avoiding acidosis
CO3 (carbonic acid) not lost in urine but is absorbed in blood
Stroma (ovary)
Connective tissue surrounding the follicles
peg cells
Secrete nutrients to capacitate the sperm for fertilization in the ampulla
