el fin Flashcards
Threshold of a neuron is
voltage at which the inflow of sodium ions causes reversal of the resting potential.
An neuronal circuit in which one presynaptic neuron stimulates a group of neurons, each of which then synapses with a common postsynaptic cell is a:
Parallel after discharge
Following injury to a peripheral neuron, chromatolysis occurs, which is:
breakup of the Nissl bodies.
The nerve that stimulates the diaphragm to contract arises from which plexus:
cervical plexus.
Spinal nerves emerge from the vertebral column via:
intervertabral foramina
the threshold of a given neuron varies considerably depending on local conditions.
true or false
True
spinothalamic tract carry what information
sensory impulses regarding temperature, pain, itch and tickle.
AKA anterolateral
corticospinal tracts stimulate what
Voluntary muscle movement
Trigeminothalamic pathway involved in
tactile, thermal and pain from face, nasal cavity, oral cavity and teeth
Facial to thalamus and cortex
Which pathway is involved most in voluntary mvement
Corticospinal
- Lateral corticospinal - distal muscles of limbs: precise movements of hands and feet (eg. Play piano)
- Limbs and trunk - Anterior corticospinal – muscles of trunk and proximal limbs
- Corticobulbar tract – muscles of head
Disease attacking the corticospinal pathway
ALS
motor area of cortex is attacked and UMN’s and LMN’s
- Corticalspinal track Aren’t sending info to LMN (also can have LMN problems)
- No cognitive detrement
Brain needs such high amount of blood flow bc
the movement of the blood stimulates the growth the neuronal cytoplasmic extensions.
Part of the pons
a) Pontine Nuclei
- Respiratory control
- Voluntary muscle control
b) Vestibular Nuclei - Involved in equilibrium (along w/ medulla) c) Pneumotaxic Area inhibits respiration – prevents overinflation d) Apneustic Area Stimulates respiration
- Nuclei for 4 pairs of cranial nerves (V, VI, VII, VIII )
Degree of muscle stretch monitered by
Muscle spindle
Muscle spindle vs GTO
Muscle spindle moniters muscle length, contracting if it gets too long
GTO moniters force on muscle, causing it to relax if force is too great
what is a receptor potential
receptor potential only facilitates signal transduction or stimulates inward current flow.
Selectivity of a receptor
Receptors respond weakly or not at all to anything BUT their corresponding stimuli
Receptor potentials and generator potentials
Receptors always occur from receptors producing APs, generator potneitals seem to be tied to general senses
What kind of receptor would sense equlibrium
Mechano
Intrafusal fibers stimulated by? Extrafusal?
Intra - Gamma motor neurons
Extra - Alpha motor neurons
The cell bodies of first-order neurons in the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway to the cortex are located in the:
posterior root ganglia of spinal nerves
Reason for visceral pain = referred pain
sensory neurons for both visceral pain and surface structures enter the same segment of the spinal cord, and surface sensations are better localized by the brain.
What are olfactory hairs
cilia projecting from the dendrites of first-order neurons.
The auditory (Eustachian) tube connects the:
Middle ear and nasopharynx
Primary location on the cortex for gustation
parietal lobe.
Whenever light hits the pupil it
Decreases in size
Muscles in the pupil function to
Radial dialate
Circular constrict
More cones or rods
Rods
order of transmission of visual stimulus
photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve, optic tract, optic chiasm
In the autonomic nervous system, all preganglionic fibers release the neurotransmitter:
ACh
Interstitial cells of testes are stimulated by hormone
LH
Major target organ for glucagon
Liver
Second messenger binding system, what occurs after enzyme binds to receptor
adenylate cyclase is activated by a G protein.
Function of adenylate cyclatase
conversion of ATP to cAMP (cyclic AMP)
Function of cAMP
(Cyclic AMP)
activates protein kinases (any enzyme that is a kinases adds a phosphate to something)
Function of - Phosphodiesterase
inactivates cAMP
somatostatin
Produced by Delta cells in pancreas
.
o Somatostatin inhibits insulin AND glucagon (slows down process of adding glucose so system has time for absorption of nutrients)
What does cortisone and cortisol do to the body?
(a stress hormone) is the opposite of an anabolic, causes catabolism of lean body mass (protein)
The primary stimulus for the release of insulin is:
Elevated blood glucose
Insulin-like growth factors are necessary for the full effect of:
hGH
The indirect effects of hGH occur primarily by the action of insulin-like growth factor-1, which hepatocytes primarily secrete in response to elevated HGH binding to surface receptors.
Percentage of infant that is fluid
75%
Intercellular vs extracellular fluid
intracellular is 2/3
Main method of fluid movement
Osmosis
Barriers seperating intra cellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and blood plasma
Plasma membrane
Blood vessel walls
Where is water mainly stored
Muscle (lean body mass)
- usually around 65%
fat stores around 20%%
Which organ is responsible for most fluid lost
Kidneys
What contributes to total fluid loss
Gi Tract
Respiration
Skin
Kidneys
Other than ingestion, how is fluid gained?
Every time you have metabolic reaction, some fluid is produced
Vast percentage of water reabsorption occurs where in the nephron?
PCT
Hormones regulating renal reabsorption
Angiotensin II
Aldosterone
Atrial Natruretic Peptide
Major hormone regulating water loss/retention
ADH
Increase of ANP results in
Reduced reabsorption of NaCl by kidneys
therefore increased loss of NaCl and water through urine
Aldosterone
Stimulated release by Angiotensin II
By promoting urinary reabsorption of Na+ and Cl-, increases water reabsorption via osmosisat DCT and CD.
Reduces loss of water in urine.
ADH
Vasopressin
Promotes insertion of water-channel proteins (aquaporin -2) into the apical membranes of principal cells in the collecting ducts of the kidneys. As a result, the water permeability of these cells increases and more water is reabsorbed.
Reduces loss of water in urine.
ANP
Promotes natriuresis, elevated urinary excretion of Na+ (and Cl-) accompanied by water.
Increases loss of water in urine.
How can water intoxication occur
- Only take in plain water (No replenishing of solutes)
- Decreased sodium and chlorine conc
- Water moves into cells (where more sodium is)
- Causes cell swelling
- Convulsions, coma, and possible death
Function of electrolytes in body fluids
i) Control osmosis of H2O between fluid compartments
ii) Ions help maintain acid-base balance
iii) Carry electrical currents for AP’s and CoP’s
iv) Cofactors needed for enzyme activity (Not involved directly)
How do bases tend to work in blood
Binding wih H ions, and taking them out of solution
Three major systems to regulate pH
Removing H ions
Buffer system
CO2 xhalation
Kidney Excretion of H
How effective is the buffer system in blood
Fast but not a strong effect
Why does one continue to exhale after stopping excercise
Exercise generates lactic acid
respiration rate remains high, clearing out lactic acid/acidic environment)
Kidney excretion of H+
- Strongest approach to regulating blood pH
- Remains active until problem is fixed
- Can excrete H ions
What action does the buffer system take to affect pH
prevent rapid or dramatic changes in pH by converting strong acids to weak acids or strong bases to weak bases.
- Change by combining and or disassociating
Principal buffers in body fluids?
Protein, carbonic acid-biocarbonate, and the phosphate buffer system
Bicarbonate ion is a
Weak base
Carbonic acid is a
weak acid buffer
Phosphate buffer system
Combats strong bases by converting them to H2O
How dos breathing affect pH
As CO2 increases, pH drops
As CO2 decreases, pH increaes
Is CO2 helpful in blood
necessary in the blood to stimulate cardiovascular center in the brain
What does a normal breathing rate signify in regards to pH
Blood pH level is normal
How do kidneys help control pH
Excrete H into bloodstream to maintain pH
Hours to do job
a blood pH of less than 7.35 would be considered
Acidosis
A blood pH of greater than 7.45
Alkilosis
pH imbalances in the blood is most often due to
Respiratory problems
Metabolic problems
Respiratory Acidosis
Alveolar ventilation can not keep up with CO2 production
Decrease in blood pH
PCO2 > 45mm of pressure
Respiratory Alkilosis
PCO2 < 35
Hyperventilation
decrease of CO2 in blood and thus pH decrease
Metabolic acidosis
Arteriole conc of bicarbonic ion less than 22mEquivperL
Decrease in HCO3
- Caused by Renal dysfunction, diahreeah
Blood pH drops
Metabolic alkalosis
Arteriole conc. of bicarbonic ion Going to be greater than 26mequivperL
Increase in HCO3- (loss of acid or intake alkaline drugs)
Caused by
- Diuretic use
- Antacid intake
- Dehydration
Uncompensated OR partial acid-base balance
The blood pH of a person can be brought up or down, but exactly optimal (7.4 pH) cannot be reached (Can be on its own or with medical intervention)
Infant metabolic rate
2x faster than adults in resting state (implying 2x more waste products to maintain pH balance)
Infants body surface in relation to pH maintenance
Infants have more surface area facing to the air (organs are not proportionately functioning to body size)
Why are infants more prone to water loss
Infants 30 – 80 breathes per minute (water loss every breath)
excessive body surface area
What would infants high conc. of K and Cl put them at risk for?
metabolic acidosis
hypernatremia
elevated sodium in the blood, linking to kidney function – less sodium is reabsorbed so more water stays in blood – BV and BP increase.
Hypokalemia
- Lower than desired potassium
zygote
Sperm and egg post fertalization
gonads
Organs that produce egg and sperm
- Also secrete hormones to help with that process
supporting reproductive structure
(penis and uterus): Assist in the delivery of egg and sperm, they do not produce
Autosomes
- All of the other chromosomes except the X and Y
- Raphe
Ext. Seperation of the scrotum
Sperm ideally produced at what temp
within 2-3 degrees of body tem (colder normally)
Cryptorchidism
Testes do not desend
Layers of testis
i) Tunica Vaginalis
- Outermost membrane lying on top of each testis
ii) Tunica Albuginea
- Generally fibrous, irregular, connective tissue
- Descends to intenior, seperateing the internal testis into rooms or lobules (200-300)
i) Spermatic Cord
Main blood supply of testis
Seminiferous tubules
- Convoluted tubules inside each lobule
- Site of sperm production
- Sperm collects in rete testies
Epidydimis
- Where sperm is stored and matures
- Takes abt 64 days from production to maturation for fertility of sperm
Sustentacular cells
Sertoli cells
- Buried in and around developing sperm, nourishes and protects them
- Also regulate testosterone production and FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
- Blood –testis-barrier
- Tight junctions that try to protect the developing sperm from antibodies
- When sperm becomes haploid, the body will attack it
Sperm production and travel out of seminiferous tubulse
Spermatagonium
primary Spermatocytes (2N)
primary Spermatocytes (1N)
Spermatids
Sperm (Spermatazoa)
Released into ST
Spermiogeneiss
From spermatid to sperm
Common fuel source for sperm
Fructose
Aerobic energy production cell, mitochondria produces the energy
- Spermiation
Fluid is produced which produces all the sperm away from the wall into the rete testes
Principal piece of sperm
Longer bend portion
What stimulates the process of spermatogenesis
Anterior pit releases LH and FSH
Testosterone affect on Ant pit
Decreases relase of GnRH and LH
What does Gonadatropin releasing hormone do?
Released by hypothalamus, goes to ant. Pit gland
- Ant pit gland produces luteinizing hormone (Helps interstiltial cells produce testosterone) and FSH
- ABP
androgen binding protein – binds to androgen (testosterone) to ensure testosterone at level necessary for spermatogenesis
LH primary job
Increase testosterone production
FSH primary job
Responsible for production of the sperm
Inhibin primary job
Inhibit further testosterone production if already at a high level bc certain. Level of testosterone optimal to produce maximal amount of sperm
Operates a negative feedback loop if testosterone level already at necessary level
Produced by sertoli cells
Seminal vesicle production
60% of semen
Add fluid that is slightly alkaline (bc urethra is typically more acidic)
- Fructose: An energy source for sperm
- Prostaglandins: A chemical that increases mobility and viability of sperm (last longer and move better)
- When prostaglandin comes I contact with female smooth muscle it fascilitates sperm travel
- Semogelin: A clotting protein, immediately after semen is released semen will coagoulate (more gel like than fluid like)
- In 15 minutes it should reliquefy for mobility
Prostate secretions
- Citrate (potential energy source linked to creb cycle),
- phosphalase, proteoltic enzymes (both help reliquefy semen),
- PSA (Prostate specific antigen): An element that is a measurement of the growth of the cells of the prostate gland
Indirect inguinal hernia
- Not only bulging but probably has travelled down the canal to some location (even as far as the testes)
Direct hernia
- Hernia implies that SI is bulging out against abdominal wall (or localized
- Very observable and palpable
pH of semen and amount per
7.2-7.7
2.5-5ml per ej
When is there a risk of infertility in regards to quantity of sperm ej
less than 20 million sperm/mL
(average is 50-150sperm/mL)
- Priapism
persistent erection that does not involve sexual activity – can last several hours
usually neurological (brain stem function) or tumor or anything that compresses blood vessels keepin them from relaxing, or when otherwise healthy males mix drugs with alcohol , SC damage
Erection is result of which NS
Parasymp
Ejaculation result of which NS
Symp
- Smooth muscle at base of urinary bladder closes (don’t want urine withsemen)
- Peristalic contractions in the ampulla of the epidymis move in peristalsis, vas
Erectile tissue compsoed of
- Corpora cavernosa: 2 large and 1 small areas, vascular tissue with tremendous blood supply
- Once filled with blood the spongey urethra becomes erectile tissue
- Corpus spongiosum
- Spongy urethra
When do ovaries descend
3 month
Ovaries produces
progesterone, inhibin, estrogen, relaxin, and the egg
Ligaments of ovaries
i) Broad ligament
ii) Ovarian ligament: Ligament that attaches the ovaries to the uterus iii) Suspensory ligament: Attaches ovaries to pelvic wall (suspends in proper location) iv) Mesovarium
Germinal epithelium
- Germinal Epithelium: Outer most layer around each ovary (Simple epithelium)
- Basically the covering
- Misnamed bc it has nothing to do with germination or follicle growth
follicular cell
Oocyte (the egg) + single layer of surrounding cells
Granulosa Cell
Oocyte + several layers of surrounding cells (For protection and nourishment)
Cycle of ovulation/follicular development
Primordial Follicle (primitive ones that have migrated from yolk sac to ovaries)
Primary (preantral) Follicles: The ones that develop to the next stage, but stay there until puberty (number drops consider, many die off)
Secondary (antral) Follicles: Typically 2 layers of cells around it (Strongest becomes mature follicle)
Corpus Hemorrhagicum (Ruptured Follicle)
“Ovulation” Secondary Oocyte: After ovulation bc it is haploid in number of chromosomes
Early Corpus Luteum
Mature Corpus Luteum
Corpus Albicans
- Zona Pellucida
Glycogprotein layer right on top of the egg for nourishment
- Theca Folliculi
A little more superficial, involved in secretion of estrogen (precursor to estrogen) and another layer of connective tissue
How many eggs are present at birth
200,000 - 2 million
How many eggs present at puberty
4000
How many eggs reach ovulation stage
400
Infundibulum
The open portion of the FT
- Isthmus
Narrowest portion of FT before uterus
Peg cells
Cilia that move egg through FT to uterus
Fertilization occurs how many days after sex
5-6 days
Which layer of uterus is stimulated to cnotract during birth
Myometrium (middle)
: The muscular layer (3 layers of smooth muscle)
- The part that, during labor, is stimulated to contract by oxytocin.
Layer removed during period
- Functionalis Layer (Good blood supply) – so if fertilization this layer will be thick and noutrishes
- Portion of utern lining that, if no pregnancy, removed each cycle
- Proliferation/multiplication
- Endometriosis is the result of excessive proliferation if functionalis layer
- Controlled by birth control or balancing estrogen/prolactin
Permanent layer of endometrium
basal layer
- Uterine Prolapse
The uterus (due to weaken/damaged ligaments) starts to fall down with gravity
Cervical Mucus
Around ovulation (highest time for potential pregnancy) cervical mucous is very liquid and very hospitable to sperm
- Other times the cervical mucous is gelatin like and is inhospitable to sperm (lower pH)
Partial hysterectomy leaves the
cervix
HIV brought into V by
- Antigen presenting cells: Typically dendritic cells (identify and process antigens)
- One of the ways the HIV cells brought in bc they bind to dendritic cells
Excersices meant to help regain control of bladder
Kegel
- Hymen
Very thin membranous membrane that partially covers external opening to the vagina
Urogenital Triangle location on female
(BW anus and vagina)
Bartholin’s Gland (greater vestibular
- Similar to bulbolar urethra – secrete fluid during sexual activity
EPISIOTOMY
Perineal cut between vagina and anus
- Typically stitched through self absorbing stitches (controlled cut heals better and scars less)
- Prevents tearing
Prolactin
The hormone that stimulates milk production
- Estrogen progesterone have to be at certain level to stimulate release of prolactin
Oxytocin
Stimulates the ejection of milk from the nipple during suckling response
Pathway of milk
Alveoli - secondary tubule - Mammary duct - Lactiferous sinus - Lactiferous duct - Nipple
Suspensory ligament
Coopers, suspends breasts in location
Fibrocystic Disease
Individual gets fibral cysts in their breast tissue
- Fluid filled, thickening of alveoli
Estrogen
Promotes development of repro structures and secondary sex characteristics
- Increases protein anabolism
- Lowers blood cholesterol
- Moderate levels inhibit release of GnRH, FSH, LH
Progesterone
Works with estrogen to prepare endometrium fr implantation
Prepares mammary glands to secrete milk
Inhibits release of GnRH and LH
Relaxin
Ihibits contractions of uterus
During labour, increases flexibilty of pubic symphosis and dialates uterine cervix
affects other connective tissue in the body (ankles, hips, knees)
- 3rd trimester pregnant women have balance probems, fall risk increased
- Post delivery, relaxin remains high for abt 3 months
Inhibin
Inhibts release of FSH and somewhat LH
Keeps follicles from maturing
What phase of the uterine cycle is the endometrium at it’s thickest
Postovulatory phase
What do the 2N follicles in the ovaries secrete
Estrogen, Inhibin and Progesterone
- about day 6 one follicle becomes dominant which secretes E and I → decreased FSH
- one dominant follicle called Graafian F
Ovulation occurs what day in the repro cycle
14
which hormones spike during/after ovulation
estrogen and LH
Which hormone causes ovulation
caused by increased E of pre-ovulatory stage
Increased LH and GnRH = ovulation
PRIMARALLY LH
corpus hemorrhagicum
Mature follicle that collaspes of ovulation
hCG
(Human coreonic gonatatropin – produced by layer of embryo called coreon)
What hormones decrease or increase at the end of a cycle without fertalization?
Progesterone, Estrogen, inhibin, and relaxin decrease
LH, and FSH increase, causing new cycle
Female triad
Medical condition most common in female athletes with low body fat and monitoring food intake
Disordered Eating
Amenorrhea
- Absence of reproductive cycle
- Drop in FSH
- Drop in LH
- Drop in progesterone and estrogens.
- All these hormones require certain amount of fat to develop.
Osteoporosis
- Estrogen required to take Ca from blood to deposit into bones.
What do oral contraceptives do?
Contraceptives (decreased FSH and LH OR block implantation by making endometrium inhospitable)
Usually composed of Estorgens &Progesterone
- EC “Morning After Pill” – Emergency Contraceptive
Combo of estrogen progesterone or very high dose of progesterone
- Inhibits LH and FSH
- Normally must be taken at least within 72 hours and then another one later
Most fertile time
3 days after and 3 days before ovulation
Consequences of menopause
- Hair thinning
- Bone density (osteoporosis risk)
- Labito
- Skin doesn’t have same lubrication
- Hormone replacement therapy (patches that add estrogen and progesterone
Andropause
- Male version of menopause except reproductive ability do not disappear
- Testosteraone about 50%
- Viable sperm production drops
- Fertilization is still possible
- Lobito drops bc testosterone drops
2 systems controlling all the funcitons of the body
Neural
endocrine
Endocrine glands
produces the hormone, which travels through the interstitial fluid into the bloodstream.
- In the bloodstream it travels to specific target organ
Hormones that cause growth and develop are known as
anabolics
- Down-regulation
There’s too much hormone, therefore, some receptors are removed to control the response
- Up-regulation
Adding more receptors when conc. of hormone is less than optimal.
Types of hormones
Circulating H
Local H
Circulating hormone
- Most common type of endocrine hormone by far
- Go from gland, into the blood, travel through the blood
- Typically longer lasting
Local Hormone
- Hormone is released, but does not travel to blood but owrks on another organ or cell in the neigborhood OR to the gland that produced them (i.e nitric oxide that Is released by blood vessels and effects them)
- Typically shorter acting
Paracrines
Hormone will react on neighboring cell
Autocrines
Released by the cell, but comes back to influence same cell that produced the hormone
- Common result: This hormone released causes cell to proliferate much faster
Chemical classes of hormone
Lipid soluble
Water solube
Types of water soluble hormones
Amine : NE and E
Peptide and protein : ADH and ocytocin
Eicosanoid: Prostglandins
Types of lipid soluble hormones
- Steroid
- Thyroid – T3 and T4
Nitric oxide: Hormone AND NT
How are lipid soluble hormones trasported in blood?
most must be bound to transport protein (produced, typically by the liver)
- Diffuse into the cell bc membrane is lipid bilayer, the lipid souble protein can move right through
How do water soluble hormones move through blood
free form in plasma (free fraction)
- Cannot on their own diffuse through the membrane (bc water does not mix with lipid
How do water soluble horones enter cells
Second messenger system
Second messenger system
- Binding to receptor activates G protein, which activates adenylate cyclatase – conversion of ATP to cAMP (cyclic AMP) (The second messenger)
- cAMP activates protein kinases (any enzyme that is a kinases adds a phosphate to something)
- Kinases phosphorylate cellular proteins forming new phosphorylated proteins
- These phosphorated proteins cause s reactions which cause physiological responses
- Phosphodiesterase inactivates cAMP
Factors influencing responsiveness of cell to hormone
- Hormone conc.
- Number of hormone receptors on target organ/cell
- How the interaction of different hormones influences their function
Permissive effect
One hormone needs the presence of a second hormone to produce the ideal effect (otherwise response would still be produced, but weaker than is required)
Synergistic effect
: Two hormones MUST be present at the same time for the effect to occur (i.e. estrogen and progesterone)
Antagonistic effect
Certain hormones produce opposite events (i.e. Insulin and glucagon)
How is blood conc regulated
NS
Chemical change
Other hormones
The master gland
Hypothalamus
hGH
Major anabolic hormones in the system; increases growth
- Released during deep sleep phase
Ant Pit
TSH (thyrotropin)
Stimulate the thyroid gland
- Often blood test done to see someone’s thyroid function
ANT PIT
PRL
Along with estrogen and progesterone begins the production of milk (permissive effect)
Hormones released by post pit
OT
ADH/vasopressin
ADH operates mostly on the
collecting ucts
Cells producing T3 and T4
Follicular cells, controlled by TSH
Almostevery cell in body has recptors for this hormone
Thyroid hormone
T3 and T4
Parafollicular cells
located In bw the follicular cells
- Produce a hormone called calcitonin
T3 and T4 production regulated by
controlled by iodine level in the blood & negative feedback loop
Thyroid gland stores enough for about 100 days of function
Actions of thyroid hormones
Increasing basal metabolic rate
Stimulate production of ATpase for Na/K pump
Increase in body temp (Calorigenic effect)
Stimulates lipolysis (breakdown of fat for production of ATP)
Enhance some action of catecholamines (Stress hormones E and NE)
Regulate growth and development of nervous tissue and bones
What cell produces PTH
Chief cells in parathyroid galnds
Increase blood calcium by increasing activity of osteoclasts
Hormones produced by Thyroid and parathyroid
Thyroid
T3 and T4
Calcitonin
Parathyroid
PTH
Catecholamine
stress hormones
When symp is increased, E and NE increases
What does adrenal medulla release
E, NE & dopamine
Adrenal cortex releases
glucocorticoids (cortisone, cortisol and corticosterone)
Hormone releasing cells of pancreas
Alpha, beta, delta, and F cells
Alpha cells
Produce glucagon
o Glucagon INCREASES blood glucose (breaks down glycogen and more)
Beta cells
Produce insulin.
o Insulin DECREASES blood glucose by putting it into cells (requires transporters etc)
Delta cells
produces somatostatin.
o Somatostatin inhibits insulin AND glucagon (slows down process of adding glucose so system has time for absorption of nutrients)
Glycogenolysis
The breakdown of glycogen to give you glucose.
Insulin necessary to bring energy into cells
Glucogenesis
Creation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
Phases of stress response
FOF
Resistence
Exhaustion
Resistance reaction to stresss
When the stress is lasting longer than short term event
- Increase in cortisol
- More adrenal gland involvement
- Typically a good weight loss technique (lipolysis BREAKDOWN of fat)
Addisons disease
(Adrenal)- hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone
- Usually more autoimmune related
- Hyperthyroidism/Hypothyroidism- excess – Graves’ Disease
Fluid in eye secreted more than it should be and thus bulging eye
- High metabolic rate
- High reactions
- Course of treatment: Swallow iodine with radiation and kills excessive thyroid cells
Diabetes 1 vs 2
1 – No insulin produced
2 – Insulin resistance
Insulin, somatotropin, and T3 are all protein _________
Anabolists
Antibodies are
B lymphocytes
What produces antibodies
Plasma cells
Thoracic duct empties lymph into
left subclavian vein.
What activates mature T cells
Interleukin 2
Is the action of IgG specific or not
Specific
How are carbohydrates absorbed in the small intestine?
Faccilitatd diffusion
What causes secretin secretion into SI?
As Chyme enters the SI
WHy would protein catabolism be toxic without funcitoning hepatocytes
The production of ammonia
The small intestine is attached to the posterior abdominal wall by a fold of the peritoneum called the:
Mesentary
Role of Micelle in fat absorption
make triglycerides more soluble in the water of intestinal fluid.
myogenic mechanism of renal autoregulation:
smooth muscle in afferent arterioles triggers vasoconstriction to decrease GFR.
mesangial cells.
Contraction of mesangial cells regulates the size of the capillary lumen and thus the amount of glomerular blood flow.
Tubular fluid as it moves through tubules
Constant through PCT
Descending loop of henle it increases (impermeable to ions, only water)
Ascending loop of henle it decrease (permeable to ions not water)
DCT varies depending on hormonal stimulus
How does juxtaglomerular apparatus regulate BP
releasing renin from the macula densa.
transport maximum
upper limit of reabsorption due to saturation of carrier systems.
Filtrate moves from nephron to periubular capillarries how
filtered fluid to interstitial fluid, to epithelial cells, to peritubular capillaries.
Collectin duct permeability regulated by
ADH
The primary determinant of body fluid volume is the:
NaCl concentration
Angiotensin II
Stimulated by low blood volume, increase results in production of aldosterone which causes NaCl to be absorbed in DCT and water as well.
Bicarbonate is a weak ________-
Base
Carbonic Acid is a weak _________
Acid
strongest base
OH-
Strongest acid
H+
What stimulates desire to drink
Hypothalamus
Ion neccessary for generation of APs
Na
What does a weak acid acting on a base result in?
Weak base and water
What does a weak base action on a strong acid result in
Carbonic acid (weak acid) which dissassociates into CO2 and H2O
Increasing RR affects
More acid expelled as H2O
Dihydrogen phosphate expelled into urine (acid)
All go to increase pH
Decreasing RR affects
Decrease pH
LH is highest
Just prior to ovulation
3 cranial nerves in gustatory pathway
- Facial (VII) – anterior 2/3 of tongue
- Supplies anterior 2/3 of tongue
- Glossopharyngeal (1X) – posterior 1/3 of tongue
- Vagus (X) – throat and epiglottis
All three connnect to gustatory nuc,eus in medullla and priamary gustatory nerve in the cortex
Palpebrae
Eyelids
Meibomian Glands
Fluid secretion and tear ducts
What do Utricle and vestibule help with?
Balance and equillibirum
Within the vestibule
3 channels of the cochlea
Scala vestibula
Scala tympani
Cochlear duct
vestibochochlear nerve goes to the ___ of the brain
medulla
midbrain
thalamus
auditory complex
Cristae
in the semicircular ducts are the primary sense organs of dynamic equilibrium.
Sequence of lymph
Blood capillaries → interstitial spaces → lymphatic capillaries → lymphatic vessels → nodes and trunks → L & R lymphatic ducts → subclavian veins/jugular
How much lymph produced and reabsorbed per day
3L/3L
Thymus parts
Cortex
- Pre T cells
- Dendritic cells
- epithelial cells
- Macrophages
Medulla
- Mature T cells
Epithelial cells of thymus
secrete hormones for maturation of T cells
dendritic cells of thymus
APC [Antigen presenting Cells] this cell identifies pathogen in body and marks it so immune cell knows what to attack) and macrophages
Parts of lymph node
Outer cortex
- Some B cells
- Follicular dendritic cells ATC
- Macrophages
Inner Cortex
- Mature T cells
- Dendritic Cells
- B cells
Deep medulla
- - B cells
- Plasma cells
- Macrophages
Lymph flow through node
Afferent lymph vessel (Incoming only)
Subcapsular sinus
Trabecular sinus
Medullary sinus
Efferent lymph vessel
Red pulp of parencyma in spleen
Venous sinuses
splenic (Billroth’s) cords (lympatic tissue
(All 5 found in splenic cord)
RBC
Macrophages
Lymphocytes
Plasma cells
Granulocytes
Peyers patches
Congregation of whole bunch of lymphatic nodules (i.e tonsils)
Interferon
stop viruses from replicating also enhance the activity of phagocytes and natural killer (NK) cell
Transferrin
proteins that inhibit cell growth by reducing the amount of iron available to certain bacteria
MHC
major histocompatibility complex (marker on membrane of own cells saying “Please do not attack”) – protein markers on cell membranes
have the ability to kill a wide variety of infectious microbes plus certain spontaneously arising tumor cells.
Phases of phagocytosis
- Chemotaxis
- Adherence
- Ingestion
- Digestion
- Killing and residual bodies
Stages of inflammation
Vasodilation/increased permeability:
Emigration of phagocytes
Tissue repair
Histamines, kinins, prostoglandins, leukotrienes and complment protein systme
Role in enhancing permeability, BV dialation, and acting as chemotaxis agents during inflammation
What is swelling caused by
increased movement of fluid and white blood cells into the injured area.
Role of complement system
when activated, these proteins “complement” or enhance certain immune, allergic, and inflammatory reactions
Opsonization
Process to enhance phagocytosis
- Puts coating on microbe, attracting phagocyties and allows for beter binding
Neutralizing antigen antibody action
prevent attachment of antigen cells to healthy cells
Lack of cell tolerance would imply
autoimmune disorder
Where do B cells complete their development?
Bone marrow
Anti-body mediated (humoral) immunity (AMI
Destruction of antigens by antibodies
What is meant by antigen processing?
Begining with ingesting the antigen and ending with insertion of antigen-MHC-II complex into the plasma membrane.
APC
- Process cell
- Recognized by T cell
- Allows T cell to bind with antigen
Dendritic cells, B cells, Macrophages
Hapten
a substance that can combine with a specific antibody but lacks antigenicity of its own.
All cells except ________ cells display MHC class I antigens.
RBCs
Which cells display display CD4 pattern
Helper T cells
Cytokines
small protein hormones needed for many normal cell functions
Participate in immune functions
co-stimulator for other T-cells
Diff bw cytoxic T cells and Killer T cells
Cytotoxic T-cells are part of your adaptive immune response. Natural killer cells are part of your innate immune response
trypsin
chymotrypsin
carboxypeptidase
A part of pancreatic secretions
(finish up digestion of proteins)
What stimulates CCK production
Chime entering small intestine
Paneth cells
Part of intestinal glands/brush border
- secrete lysosomes
- Brunner’s Glands (Duodenal Glands)
- Important, secretes alkaline secretion
- Important for neutralizing acidic environment coming from the stomach
Micelle
Transports fats to brush bordr, allowing them to travel through water (b/c they’re insoluble)
Function of chylomiron
Reformed Fats cant move on their own, cylomicron leaves the intestinal wall and can be absorbed into the lacteal
What is the last part of the defecation reflex?
Opening of internal sphincter and then voluntary (ext) sphincter
Glycemic index
How quickly carbohydrates go from digestion to absorbed
- High glycemic (20-30 minutes from breakdown to absorption
- Low glycemic (1.5-2hr to go from digestion to absorption)
Where are podocytes located?
lays on top of capillaries in the glomularis
Eventually have ability to determine what leaves blood and goes into urine
- Principle Cells
Found in last part of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
o Primarily responsible for determining final concentration of urine (Thick or thin)
o Have receptors (Protein is inserted into those cells) for antidiuretic hormone.
- Mesangial Cells
Cells located on top of filtration membrane that help to determine size of filtration membrane (determining what can pass through) – influence how much can be filtered/ what can come through
- Pedicels
Fingers of podocyte
Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure
Promotes filtration
~ 55 mmHg
Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure
Resists filtration
- 15 mmHg
Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure
Resists filtration
~30mmHg
GFR regulated how?
i) Adjusting blood flow in and out of glomerulus (adjusting afferent arteriole)
- Increase blood flow in, increase GFR
ii) Altering glomerular capillary surface area for filtration.
- Allow it to filter more or less
- Myogenic (muscle) Mechanism vs tubuloglomerular
Two types of renal autoregulation
Myogenic is instant
Tubuloglomerular is slower
Both reduce arteriole blood flow (or increase)
Would reduced arteriole blood flow increase or decrease GFR?
Decrease
Mesecolon vs mesentary
Mesecolon: secures LI to posterior wall
Mesentary secures SI to posterior wall
