KRM 310 Sem test 1 Flashcards
what does the term “abstract” mean in relation to theories
they consist of statements generally dissociated from any material objects, specific circumstances, facts or observations
what are detractors
describe the theory as lacking concreteness
where does the complexity of theories lie
in their assumptions and assertations
define determinism
the assumption that people have free will to choose alternative life paths
what are the 4 types of asserations
THPV
Theoretical
Hypotheses
Propositions
Verifiable propositions
what is a theoretical asseration
a testable relationship
what is the hypotheses asseration
a relationship that is still to be verified, the research is less compelling
what is the propositions assertation
Statements about relationship
what is the verifiable propositions asserations
proven laws
define theory-testing studies
when a theory is the starting point for deductive research
define theory-building studies
when a theory is the ending point for inductive research
how do deductive researchers work
they base their work on past theorising that leads to research questions or testable hypotheses
how to inductive researchers work
they allow the data to speak for itself, providing findings that may emerge as a theory
what are the 2 modes of observation that researchers may adopt (they only adopt one)
qualitative data (subjective phenomena that can’t be measured) or quantitative data (numeric and objective)
what are the 4 goals of crime theories
DEPC
description
explanation
prediction
control
define correlation
a tie between 2 variable measures of events. a change in one results in a change in the other
define causation
anything that produces an effect and meets 3 criteria
what are the 3 criteria for causation
TPA
time-order sequencing
presence of a correlation
Absence of a spurious link between the alleged cause and effect
define symbolic interactionism
the perception of reality determines the outcome
what are the 2 kinds of theories
metatheories and unit theories
what are metatheories
rarely testable and are best viewed as ways of looking at and interpreting reality. theories about theories
what are unit theories
emphasize a particular problem and make testable assertions about that problem.
what are the 3 levels of abstraction
Macrotheories
microtheories
bridging theories
what are macro theories
broad in scope and best characterised as those that explain social structure and its effects
what are the 4 features of macro theories
PFSF
Paint a picture of how the world works
Fit the structure of society into that picture
Suggest how crime is related to that structure
Focus on rates of crime rather than on criminals and their behaviour
what are microtheories
based on the assumption that a particular way of characterizing society is best, that characterization is then used directly to explain how people become criminals
what are the 2 features of microtheories
focuses on specific groups of people or individuals
tells us how people become criminals
what are bridging theories
attempt to tell us both how social structure comes about and how people become criminals.
both epidemiology (rates of crime) and etiology (how people become criminals)
what do classical theories focus on?
legal statutes, governmental structures and the rights of humans
what do positivist theories focus on?
pathology in criminal behaviour, treatment, and on the correction of criminality within individuals
what are the 3 common classification schemes?
classical vs positive
structure vs process
consensus vs conflict
what do structural theories focus on?
the way society is structured, the effects of which could promote offending behaviour
what do process theories focus on?
how people become criminal
what do consensus theories focus on?
people in society agree on what is wrong behaviour
what do conflict theories focus on?
people disagree and hold conflicting values.
what are the 10 characteristics of a good theory?
PPPPTELFIS
Parsimony
Plausible
Predictability
Policy implications
Testability
Empirical validity
Logical consistency
Falsifiability
Integration potential
Scope
what concept did Cesare Beccaria propose
a social contract between individuals and society, emphasizing the importance of free will and consent.
what 3 crimes did beccaria believe deserve punishment
crimes threatening state security
crimes harming citizens or their property
crimes that disrupt social order
what are the 5 key ideas of Jeremy Bentham’s contribution to the classical school of criminology
PPHUI
Punishment should be sufficient to deter individuals from committing crime
Punishment must be swift and certain
Hedonistic calculus
Utilitarianism
Individuals are motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain
what are the 6 primary tenets of the classical school of criminology
PPPPTF
People seek pleasure and avoid pain
Punishment should be used as a deterrent to criminal behaviour
Punishment should be based upon the seriousness of the crime
Punishment for identical crimes should be identical
The social contract
Free will
what is the deterrence theory
the application of punishment to modify behaviour or prevent misconduct
what is general deterrence
punishing an offender to make others aware of the potential consequences, deterring them from similar acts
what is specific deterrence
offenders realize that the benefits of their actions are outweighed by the punishment incurred
what are the 3 factors that make deterrence effective
punishment must be…
Severe enough
swift
certain
define the rational choice approach
offenders decide to break the law after weighing personal factors and situational factors
what 4 things do offenders assess before committing a crime (decision making process)
SPIR
Severity of expected punishment
Potential value of the criminal endeavour
Immediate need for criminal gain
Risk of apprehension
what are the 2 factors that may influence someone to avoid crime
Increased risk of apprehension
Perception of diminished economic benefits
define shared ambitions
Criminals often pursue goals similar to law-abiding citizens but opt for illegal means to achieve them
define conventional values
Many offenders still value success, material gain, and hard work, just like mainstream society
define offense specific crime
offenders selectively react to the characteristics of specific offences
define offender specific crime
criminals are not indiscriminate; they weigh their own capabilities, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit a crime.
what is the difference between crime and criminality
crime= an event
criminality= personal trait
what are the 3 factors to structuring criminality
Economic opportunity
Learning and experience
Knowledge of criminal techniques
what are the 3 factors to structuring crime
Choosing the type of crime
Choosing the time and place of crime
Choosing the target of crime
define absolute deterrence
individuals refrain from all criminal behaviour, whether related to prior offences or not, after recognising potential losses or errors in their conduct
define restrictive deterrence
Offenders modify their criminal behaviour rather than completely abandoning it after experiencing punishment
what is criminal motivation and supply
assumes a constant supply of individuals ready to engage in predatory crime
what is coincidence of factors
crime occurs when 3 elements coincide- a motivated offender, a suitable target and absence of a capable guardian
what are the 4 dimensions of target suitability
PAGE
Proximity
Attractiveness
Guardianship
Exposure
what is the relationship between biology and the environment with regard to the role of testosterone
biology sets the capacity for testosterone production and the environment influences the way it is expressed
what are the 3 main effects of testosterone on the brain that may contribute to criminal behaviour
CII
Controlling reticular arousability
Impacting the limbic system
Influencing the domination of a particular brain hemisphere
which 3 neurotransmitters are involved in signal transmission between neurons in the brain
Serotonin
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
what does serotonin do
it is an inhibitor of aggression and a facilitator of pain
what do dopamine and norepinephrine do
they encourage aggression
what are the 7 biological perspectives on criminality
TABNNCC
Testosterone
Adrenaline
Brain dysfunction
Neurotransmitters
Nutritionally-induced biochemical imbalances
Central nervous system
Cerebral dysfunction
how do psychological and psychiatric theories aim to explain criminal behaviour
through the personality attributes of the offender, whilst also considering biological and environmental factors
what are the 3 main areas that psychological theories are categorized into?
psychodynamic/psychoanalytic
behavioural
cognitive
what do psychodynamic theories propose to do with regard to criminology
delve into the unconscious behaviours believed to contribute to criminal behaviour
what do behavioural theories propose to do with regard to criminology
focus on the learning processes that lead individuals to engage in criminal behaviour
what do cognitive theories propose to do with regard to criminology
examine how thought processes influence behaviour
what are the 3 levels of the mind according to sigmund freud
conscious
preconscious
subconscious
what is psychoanalysis
a technique developed by Freud to uncover unconscious events
what are the 3 components of that the conscious and unconscious are categorized into?
ID
Ego
Superego
what are the 5 stages of childhood development according to Freud
Oral
Anal
Phallic
Latency
Genital
what does Freudian psychology attribute criminal behaviour to
Disturbances in the ego or superego
what is the nature of behavioural psychology
human behaviour is shaped by learning experiences and interactions with the environemnt
how can behavioural psychology be applied to criminal behaviour
the behavioural theory suggests that criminal behaviour can be learned through associations with certain acts (behavioural psychology involves both operant and classical conditioning)
what is the social learning theory
behaviour is learned through a process of behaviour modelling or imitation. people mimic the behaviours of others.
what is the cognitive theory
focuses on mental processes and explores how individuals perceive and mentally interpret the world around them
what is the moral and intellectual development theory
they are included in the cognitive theory and used to explain criminal behaviour
what are the 6 stages of moral development
OMDMBA
Right is…
Obedience to authority and avoiding punishment
Meeting one’s own needs whilst respecting the needs of others
Defined by motives, concern for others and empathy
Maintaining societal rules and serving the welfare group
Based on individual rights within a society and agreed-upon rules
Adherence to universal principles of justice, equality and respect for humanity
define cognitive scripts
mental representations of past behaviours and experiences that guide future actions
what is the cognitive scripts model
suggests that individuals apply cognitive scripts developed from past experiences to navigate new situations
what is the hostile attribution model
suggests that previous influence on mental development leads some individuals to interpret ambiguous actions as hostile
what is the expectancy theory
emphasizes the importance of individuals’ expectations about the consequences of their behaviours, including the reinforcement they will gain from them.
what is frustration induced criminality
a cognitive model that explains behaviours that deviate from previous patterns. occurs when individuals or groups so not receive expected rewards for their behaviours
what are situational instigators
cognitive theories that highlight the influence of situational factors on behaviour, suggesting that circumstances can override previously developed prohibitions or norms.
what is psychometry
a branch of psychology that seeks to identify psychological or mental differences between criminals and law-abiding individuals. it involves the measurement of psychological attributes or traits.
what are the 3 categories of psychopaths
primary
secondary/neurotic
dyssocial
what are the 10 personality disorders
AASSBONDHP
Anti-social
Avoidant
Schizoid
Schizotypal
Borderline
Obsessive-compulsive
Narcissistic
Dependent
Histrionic
Paranoid
Define ecology
the study of the relationship between an organism and its environment
what ar the 5 zones according to the concentric zone model
Zone I- CBD with very few residents and commercial dominance
Zone II- Transitional zone with run down housing and factories, poor residents live here
Zone III- Working-class area with single-family tenements
Zone IV- Residential zone with single-family homes, gardens, and garages
Commuter Zone- Suburbs beyond Suburb IV
what 3 maps did Shaw and McKay use to study male deliquency rates in Chicago
Spot maps
Zone maps
Rate maps
What was the Chicago Area Project (CAP)
Shaw and McKay developed a delinquency prevention programme in 3 high-delinquency areas of Chicago
what is the systemic model of crime proposed by Bursik and Grasmick
it extends the classical social disorganisation theory by emphasizing the role of social controls within neighbourhood networks in influencing criminal activity
what 3 types of social controls does the systemic model of crime use to unpack the mechanisms by which neighbourhood conditions affect crime levels
Private control
Parochial control
Public control
what does Private control rely on
friendship and kinship ties
what does parochial control involve
neighbourhood supervision and monitoring by neighbours
what does public control entail
the application of external resources, typically by government and law enforcement agencies
what is collective efficacy
the linkage of social cohesion with shared expectations among neighbours to intervene for the common good. relies on a basic level of trust among neighbours and incorporates purposeful action.
what does the cultural attenuation hypothesis suggest
that weak cultural commitments in high crime areas compromise informal social control
what 5 focal concerns did Miller identify characterize lower-class subculture
TTFES
Trouble
Toughness
Fate
Excitement
Smartness
what does the subculture of violence theory suggest
that high levels of violence among urban youth stem from a culture that approves and expects physical aggression as a response to conflict
