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human physiology Flashcards

1
Q

a neuron

A

it is the main component of nervous tissue, an electrically excitable cell. they receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon.

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2
Q

neuron structure

A

Soma: Cell body

Dendrites: Receives info

Axon: Transmits signals away from some to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath: Insulating the axon

Synapse: Junction where information is transmitted

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3
Q

soma

A

soma is the body of the neuron. it contains the nucleus. they are placed mostly in the brain and the spinal cord also nerve nodes

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4
Q

axon

A

a finer, cable-linked projection that can extend to 1 meter long. carried nerve signals away from the some. Many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons

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5
Q

dendrite

A

cellular extensions with many branches. Branching is a multi-step biological process by which neurons form a new dendritic trees and branches to create new synapses.

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6
Q

synapse

A
  • structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron
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7
Q

presynaptic part

A

is located on an axon and the post synaptic part on a dendrite

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8
Q

where do neurotransmitters bind to

A

neurotrasmitter binds to the receptors located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell

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9
Q

depolarization

A

an electrical change within a neuron from a negative charge to a positive charge.

cause: by a rapid rise in membrane

Sodium Na channels open
potassium K channels closed
Na and K pump closed

BEFORE: Na outside, K inside (inside -70mV)
AFTER: Na influx - they have come inside (inside +30mV)

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10
Q

repolarization

A

an electrical change within a neuron from a positive change to a negative change

cause: results from rapid sodium channel inactivation.

sodium channel closed
potassium channel open
Na and K pump closed

BEFORE: Na and K inside (+30mV)
AFTER: K efflux, they are coming out of there (inside: -80mV)

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11
Q

what is the resting potential in mV

A

-70

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12
Q

how does sodium potassium pump work

A

needs atp to pump, active translocation
three sodium iones oumped out of the cell\
two potassium ions pumped into the cell

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13
Q

acetylcholine

A

it is used as the neurotransmitter in many synapses
produced in the pre-synaptic neuron by combining choline, absorbed from the diet, with an acetyl group produced during aerobic respiration
it is loaded into vesicles and then released into the synaptic cleft during synaptic transimission

the receptors for acetylcholine in the post-synaptic membrane have a binging site to which it will bind. The acetylcholine only remains bound to the receptor for a short time, during which only one action potential is initiated in the post-synaptic neuron.
the choline is reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron.

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14
Q

oscilloscopes

A

they are scientific instruments that are used to measure the membrane potential across a neuronal membrane

tas grafas kuris rodo depolarization and repolarization

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15
Q

hyperpolarization

A

a change in a cell’s membrane potential that makes it more negative

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16
Q

nerve impulses

A

action potentials that move along the length of an axon as a wave of depolarization

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17
Q

myelin

A

in a certain neruons the axon way be covered by a fatty white substance called myelin which functions as an insulating layer. Myelin is a mixture of protein and phospolipids that is produced by glial cells. The main purpose of the myelin sheets is to increase the speed of electrical transmission via saltatory conduction

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18
Q

synaose

A

a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron. the Presynaptic part is located on an axon and the postsynaptic part is located on a dendrite

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19
Q

a chemical that kill insects

A

Neonicotinoid

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20
Q

natural hormones

A

proteins

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21
Q

steroids are made of

A

cholesterol - lipid

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22
Q

hormones

A

regulate the body’s homeostasis

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23
Q

thyroxin

A

is a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland in response to signals initally derived form the hypothalamus. The primary role of thyroxin is to increase the basal metabolic rate (amount of energy the body uses at rest) this can be achieved by stimulating carbohydrate and lipid metabolism via the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids.

hotter: temperature causes hypothalamus to inhibit thyroxin release ehich decreases metabolic reate of the body to reduce heat production (lower body temp)

colder: tempretarture cause hypothalamus to stimulate thyroxin release which increased metabolic rate fo the body to generate heat rising body’s temp.

thyroxin - thyroid gland - to regulate the body’s metabolism
hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary stimulating the thyroid gland to release thyroxin - negative feedback - thyroxin when released sends signals to the hypothalamus to stop producing hormones stimulating the anterior pituitary
regulates metabolism, body temperature, growth and development

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24
Q

melatonin

A

a hromone produced by the pineal gland within the brain in response to changes in light. Light exposure to the retina is relayed via the suprachiasmatic nucleus (in the hypothalamus and inhibits melatonin secretion (for sleep)

melatonin - regulates the sleep-wake cycle, supports immune function
during bright light - inhibition of melatonin, during night - stimulates
triggers eyes, this triggers brain, pineal glands secret melatonin

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25
Q

leptin

A

a hormone produced by adipose cells that regulate fat stones within the body by suppresing apetite. Leptin binds to receptors located within the hypothalamus to inhibit apetite and thereby reduce food intake.

fat cells empty - no leptin signal to hypothalamis - we eat

fat cells full - leptin signals sent to hypothalamus - we don’t eat

leptin - secreted by the adipose (fat) cells, into the blood, passes through the brain, and attaches to the receptor of the hypothalamus, this sends signals about the information of the fat cells and the brain is able to regulate the need of food - negative feedback on brain because more hormone - less hunger

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26
Q

Homeostasis

A

a self-regulated process by which a living organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to change external conditions.

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27
Q

glucose

A

it cannot be stored in the blood because of them disolving and water goes out of the cell. It is however stored in the liver and muscles. this stored form is called glycogen. Insulina nd glucogen molecule help maintain sugar levels.

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28
Q

glucagon

A

prevent sugar from dropping, and produced by the alpha cells found in the pancreas

target cells: liver and muscle cells
these cells release glucose into the blood and convert glycogen to glucose.

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28
Q

insulin

A

prevent sugar levels from rising too high, produced in the pancreas, it is a peptide hormone secreted by Beta cells of the pancreas.

targets liver an muscle cells
these cells absorb glucose from the blood and convert it to glycogen

29
Q

glucose in plants is stored in

A

starch

30
Q

homeostasis and negative feedback

A

for example when blood glucose levels are high - insulin is produced which lowers blood glucose.

31
Q

diabetes form if

A

glucose is not regulated

32
Q

diabetes is

A

a disroder that results from a high blood glucose concentration ocer a prolonged period.

33
Q

type 1 diabetes

A

usually happens when the body attacks itself by mistake. It destroys beta cells that make insulin in the pancreas. it happens when figghtin infections. Treatment includes insulin injuctions, diet, exercise and counting carbohydrates, etc.

cannot be prevented

B-cells destroyed - autoimmune disease so insulin not secreted
consequences; thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred vision, poorly healing wounds

benefit when avoiding stress, blood sugar monitoring and changes in diet, exercise

34
Q

type 2 diabetes

A

often develop in people over age 45, cells respond poorly to insulin, there is insulin resistance and take less sugar, does not recognize it.

it rises the risk in people with obesity. managing it can HELP eating well and exercising.

causes: genetic, environmental or lifestyle factors (unhealthy diet)

can be prevented with lifestyle changes

consequences; thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, blurred vision, poorly healing wounds

benefit when avoiding stress, blood sugar monitoring and changes in diet, exercise

35
Q

testis

A

produce sperm and testosterone

36
Q

scrotum

A

hold testes at lower than core body tempreture

37
Q

epididymis

A

store sperm until ejaculation

38
Q

sperm duct / vas deferens

A

transfer sperm during ejaculation

39
Q

seminal vesicle and prostate gland

A

screte fluid containting alkali proteins and fructose that is added to sperm to make semen

40
Q

urethra

A

transfer semen during ejaculation and urine during urination

41
Q

penis

A

penetrate the vagina for ejaculation of semen near the cervix

42
Q

ovary

A

produce eggs, estrogen and progesterone

43
Q

oviduct / fallopian tube

A

collect eggs at ovulation, provide a site for fertilization then move the embryo to the uterus

44
Q

uterus

A

provide for the need of the embryo and then fetus during pregnancy

45
Q

cervix

A

protect the fetus during pregancy and then dilate to provide a brith canal

46
Q

vagina

A

stimulate penis to cause ejaculation and provide a birth canal

47
Q

vulva

A

protect internal parts of the female reproductive system

48
Q

how many chromosomes does an egg in the ovum have

A

23

49
Q

how many chromosomes does the sperm have

A

23

50
Q

how many chromosomes do a zygote and embryo have

A

46 chromosomes in 23 pairs

51
Q

Y chromosome contain info about

A

only about male development

52
Q

X chromosome contain info about

A

female development but human body too

53
Q

SRY

A

a gene in Y chromosome that codes for a testis-determining factor (TDF) that causes embryo to form into testes

In absence of TDF protein (no Y chromosome) the embryonic gonads will develop into ovaries.

54
Q

testes role

A

they produce testosterone to promote further development of male sex characteristics, it can affect all of the hormones

55
Q

ovaries role

A

will produce estrogen and progesterone to promote the development of female sex characteristics

56
Q

FSH function

A

from the anterior pituitary

stimulates follicular growth in ovaries
stimulates estrogen secretion from developing follicles

57
Q

LH function

A

from the anterior pituitary
surge causes ovulation
promotes a release of an egg during ovulation
results in formation of corpus luteum (isskiria progesterona)

58
Q

estrogen function

A

in the ovaries
thickens uterine lining (endometrium)
inhibits FSH and LH for most of cycle
stimulates FSH and LH release pre-ovulation

59
Q

progesterone function

A

in the ovaries
thickens uterine lining (endometrium)
inhibits FSH and LH.

60
Q

menstrual cycle short

A

recurring changes that occur within the female reproductive system to make pregnancy possible.
each menstrual cyckle lasts roughly one month (28days) and begins at puberty; ending with menopause.

61
Q

which hormones control and coordinate the menstrual cyckle and how

A

pituitary hormones FSH and LH are released from the anterior pituitary gland and act on the ovaries to develop follicles
ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone are released from the ovaries and act on the uterus to prepare for pregnancy.

62
Q

menstrual cycle parts

A

follicular phase
- fsh stimulates growth of the follicles
- dominant follicle produces estrogen which enhibits fsh secretion to prevent other follicles growing (negative feedback)

ovulation
- midway through the cycle estrogen makes pituitary to secrete hromones (positive feedback)
LH causes the dominant follicle to rupture and release an egg

luteal phase
- follicle develops into a slowly degenerating corpus luteum
- this corpus luteum secretes high levels of progesterone
- estrogen and progesterone makes the uterus thicker to prepare for possible pregnancy

menstruation
- if fertilisation occurs the developing embyo makes the corpus luteum to make progesterone further a do.
- if fertilisation doesn’t occur corpus luteum eventually degenerates
- esterogen and progesteron levels drop and the endometrium cannot be longer maintained (sienele kuri padideja)
- it is then removed by menstrual blood

63
Q

IVF MEANING

A

fertilization that occurs outside the body, suspends normal ovulation before using hormone treatments to collect multiple eggs

64
Q

IVF process

A
  1. ovarian stimulation hormone therapy. the woman takes a drug each day usually as a nasal spray, to stop her pituitary gland secreting FSH and FH. secretion of estrogen and progesterone therefore also stops. This suspends the normal menstrual cycle and allows doctors to control the timing and amount of egg production in the woman’s ovaries
  2. egg picks up - superovulation
    intramuscular injections of FHS and LH then are given daily for about ten days to stimulate follicles to develop. The FSH injections give a much higher concentration of this hormone than during a normal menstrual cycle and as a consequence for more follicles to develop than usual.
  3. sperm preparation, egg fertilization
    the extracted eggs are then incubated in the presence of a sperm sample from the male donor, the eggs are then analyzed under microscope for successful fertilization.
  4. embryo development, embryo transfer
    2 weeks prior to implantation, the woman begins to take progesterone treatments to develop the endometrium, healthy embryos are selected and transffered into the female uterus (or the uterus of a surrogate) multiple embryos are transferred to improve chances of successful implantation (hence multiple births are a possible outcome.)
65
Q

why are hormones during IVF regulated?

A

completely regulated for IVF to be successful due to correct menstrual cycle part during the procedure.

66
Q

homeostasis

A

is the maintenance of a constant internal environment within an acceptable pre-set range (e.g. temperature) despite the changes in the environment

67
Q

hormones

A

chemical signals secreted by endocrine glands and carried in the blood to their target tissues or organs

68
Q

gonads

A

reproductive organs that produce gametes (sex cells and hormones)

69
Q

what mutations lead to cancer

A

mutation in a gene coding for cell growth and mutations in tumor suppressor genes that repress cell cycle progression

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