body defense&respiration

Question 1

pathogen

Answer 1

an invader in the body

Question 2

defence methods in the body

Answer 2

• WBC
  -nose hair
• stomach acids
• sweat
• mucus

Question 3

a disease that fill the coronary arteries with atheroma

Answer 3

artherosclerosis

Question 4

atheroma

Answer 4

fat deposits in the arteries because of bad cholesterol or other conditions

Question 5

skin’s features as a body protector

Answer 5

thick and tough layer
protects the outer body areas
secrete chemicals that prevent microbial growth on the skin
contains a low pH (5,4-6,4) to porhibit microbal growth

Question 6

mucous membrane’s features as a body protector

Answer 6

protects internal structures (externally accessible like trachea or oesophagus)
consists of thin layer of living cells that wash away the pathogens - tears, mucus, saliva.
removes pathogens together with sneezing or coughing.

Question 7

symptoms of the hear attack

Answer 7

cold sweat
dizziness
heavy chest pain
heavy breathing

Question 8

innate immunity

Answer 8

a born in immunity that is primitive (found in all organisms)
it reacts to all the pathogens the same way - engulfs them and digests them to kill it
the reaction is very fast since it’s same for everyone.
effectors (activated cells to play in the response) - phagocytes, epithelial cells.

Question 9

adaptive immunity

Answer 9

only in animals
directed only to a specific pathogens and the response is created specifically to it
the response (generation of antibodies) is therefore slow
leaves a memory cell that latter works faster generating the same successful response
activated cells - lymphocytes (in the blood - B cells, in the tissue T cells)

Question 10

phagocytosis

Answer 10

in innate immunity a phagocyte’s receptors interacts with the pathogen, the phagocyte engulfs the pathogen, lysosomes (digestion organelles) start digesting the pathogen, it is broken down to proteins and other molecules.

Question 11

first line of defence

Answer 11

skin, nose hair

Question 12

second line of defence

Answer 12

innate cell - born with this immunity, phagocytes perform phagocytosis and try to kill the pathogen by eating it, the response is fast and the same every time.

Question 13

third line of defence

Answer 13

adaptive cell - lymphocytes are working. T-cells in the WBC recognizes the pathogen and B-cells are then generating a specific response to it, therefore it is slower. This line of defense leave the memory cells after killing other lymphocytes if the attack was successful to perform the same response the next time same pathogen invades the body.

Question 14

antigen

Answer 14

a protein that is on a surface of a pathogen that make the body react to it and make antibodies against it. the pathogen is recognized because of an antigen.

Question 15

what are the types of lymphocytes

Answer 15

B-cells T-cells and natural killing cells
each type generate one type of antibody

Question 16

what are antibodies and antigens made of

Answer 16

proteins

Question 17

what is HIV

Answer 17

human immunodeficiency virus that attacks the body’s immune system, more specifically B-cells, it releases it genome to manufacture its proteins and therefore slowly kill the immune system. If not treated it can develop to AIDS - a syndrome.
It spreads through unsafe sex and uncleaned needles.

Question 18

antibiotics are

Answer 18

compounds that kill bacteria by targeting prokaryotic matabolism, features include 70s ribosomes and cell wall that is not relevant to animal cells, therefore it doesn’t kill the host infected cell but only the bacteria.

Question 19

why antibiotics do not treat viruses

Answer 19

because they do not have the features of a prokaryotic cell which makes then unrecognizable for the antibiotic. viruses are treated with vaccines (other viruses) that eventually develop an immunity.

Question 20

what happens after constant usage of antibiotics or not as long usage of antibiotics?

Answer 20

bacteria inside the body becomes resistant to the antibiotic therefore it is not working anymore. It is a natural selection.

Question 21

vaccines are and are used for

Answer 21

treating viruses, it gives a long term immunity to a pathogen by stimulating memory cells. The immune response with the primary immune response, people might get couple of shots throughout the year because memory cells not always live a lifetime.

Question 22

herd immunity

Answer 22

when large part of the population of an area is immune to a specific disease.

Question 23

when vaccines cannot be gotten?

Answer 23

when pregnant, sick with cancer, HIV, having an organ transplant, even cultural beliefs. Immune tends to not to react to the vaccine then.

Question 24

epidemic

Answer 24

increased occurrence of a particular infection within a given region

Question 25

pandemic

Answer 25

epidemic that is widespread of an infectious disease over a whole country or a world over a particular time.

Question 26

eradicated disease

Answer 26

virus from which there is a herd immunity (like chicken pox) so it is not occurring anymore, however, if people tend to stop vaccinating from it, ir might reappear.

Question 27

endemic

Answer 27

an infectious disease regulary occurring within an area or a community

Question 28

Ventilation

Answer 28

the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs - achieved by a physical act known as breathing

Question 29

gas exchange

Answer 29

oxygen and CO2 exchange in the alveoli and blood capillaries via passive diffusion.

Question 30

respiration

Answer 30

the process when oxidized food makes energy (for example glucose -> energy, water and CO2)

Question 31

the process of respiratory

Answer 31

air enters through a nose or mouth
goes down the bronchus
then to bronchioles
and then to alveoli
there oxygen is dissolved and transferred to capillaries to the blood, and erythrocytes (red blood cells) transfer their co2 waste.
when inhaling the TYPE 2 pneumocytes secrete surfactant which helps alveolus to expand and therefore minimizes the surface tension.

Question 32

blood clotting

Answer 32

coagulation cascade (primary haemostasis)
let’s take an example of atherosclerosis. when atheroma forms and then rips, the platelets are exposed to collagen which makes them undergo a structural change to become sticky and adherent to one other. this forms a sticky plug that activates the thrombin (enzyme)
in the secondary haemostasis thrombin helps the structural change from a soluble protein fibrinogen to an insoluble fibrin that then makes strands and makes a strong mesh that traps the blood cells and therefore form a blood clot.
in a case of discussed disease this can result in blockage of coronary arteries which then make the muscles oxygen-hungry and this could lead to a heart attack or death.

Question 33

alveoli adaptation

Answer 33

they are surrounded by a rich capillary network for an easier diffusion, their surface area is large, they have a thin layer and their internal layer is a liquid surface (which makes tension there we need surfactant for that) which helps for better dissolving of gases.

Question 34

pneumocytes: their types and theri function (+ a structure)

Answer 34

they line the alveoli.
type 1 - responsible for the gas exchange with blood stream
are very thin
are flatter than type 2

type 2 - produces surfactant
are much thicker
can differentiate to a type1 if needed

Question 35

what would happen without a surfactant

Answer 35

the alveoli most likely would explode

Question 36

antagonistic mucles

Answer 36

present in the respiratory process as rib cage expands and relaxes. it is when muscles are working oppositely of each other (when inspiratory muscles contract, expiratory relax and vice versa)

Question 37

muscles in inspiratory

Answer 37

external intercostals to make the rib cage expand, and diaphragm that contracts and becomes flat

Question 38

muscles in expiration

Answer 38

internal intercostals to make the rib cage smaller and diaphragm that then expands.

Question 39

when is high and low pressure in the lungs during respiratory

Answer 39

high volume low pressure when inhaling.
low volume high pressure when exhaling.

Question 40

lung cancer

Answer 40

causes: tobacco smoke.
Secondhand smoke

consequence: a tumor evolves, shortness of breath, not working lung, lost of weight, coughing blood.

Question 41

emphysema

Answer 41

less surface for the gas exchange.

This creates one larger air space instead of many small ones and reduces the surface area available for gas exchange. Emphysema is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath.

Signs and symptoms of emphysema take years to develop, but once they start, they generally include shortness of breath, coughing with mucus, wheezing and chest tightness.

Emphysema is generally caused by cigarette smoking or long-term exposure to certain industrial pollutants or dusts.

Question 42

the other term for primary haemostasis

Answer 42

coagulation cascade

Question 43

The function of abdominal muscles in breathing

Answer 43

The function of abdominal muscles is forced respiration by raising and lowering the ribs.

Question 44

Howard Florey and Chain: Penicillin on bacterial infections in mice

Answer 44

it killed bacteria in agar plates but was needed to test if it worked on animal cells.
8 mice were infected with deathly bacteria
4 were given penicillin
within 24 all untreated mice dead and others survived
they then did tests on humans
one person died because of lack of penicillin production, alter when there was enough of it 5 more people were tested and were healthy.

Question 45

role of surfactant

Answer 45

a liquid secreted by type II pneumocytes to break water molecules in the liquid layer of alveoli and make them more elastic when inhaling air, so they could expand easier and not explode

Question 46

coronary thrombosis

Answer 46

blood clot in coronary artery