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Worcester Sixth Biology 101 > Human Musculoskeletal Anatomy > Flashcards

Human Musculoskeletal Anatomy Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Epimysium?

A

protective sheath/layer, from friction against other muscles/bones

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2
Q

What is the Perimysium?

A

connective tissue

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3
Q

What is the Fascicle?

A

bundle of muscle fibres

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4
Q

WHat is the Endomysium?

A

fibrous connective layer of tissue, insulates each muscle fibre

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5
Q

What is a muscle fibre?

A

long, cylindrical, multi-nucleate muscle cell

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6
Q

What is a myofibril?

A

bundles of proteins (actin and myosin) important in muscle contraction
is long cylindrical organelle within muscle fibre

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7
Q

What is the sarcolemma?

A

muscle fibre cell membrane

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8
Q

What is the sarcoplasm?

A

fluid (cytoplasm) contains glycogen and fats for energy and mitochondria for production

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9
Q

What is a tendon?

A

connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone

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10
Q

What is a sarcomere?

A

repeating segments of a myofibril (smallest structure)

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11
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle?

A

cardiac, smooth, skeletal

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12
Q

What is cardiac muscle?

A

found in the heart, muscle is myogenic and is not under conscious voluntary control

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13
Q

What is smooth muscle?

A

found in gut and blood vessel lining. This muscle is neurogenic and is not under voluntary, conscious control

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14
Q

What is skeletal muscle?

A

attached to bone, is neurogenic and is under voluntary conscious control

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15
Q

What does neurogenic mean?

A

contraction initiated by a neurone

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16
Q

What does myogenic mean?

A

contraction initiated by the muscle itself

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17
Q

What 2 terms can muscle fibres be described as relating to abundance of nuclei?

A

Coenocytic and Syncytium

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18
Q

WHat does coencytic mean?

A

a cell that has lots of nuclei because he nucleus has divided by mitosis many times but the cell didn’t divide afterwards

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19
Q

What does syncytium mean?

A

the presence of many nuclei as a result of the fusion of many cells

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20
Q

What 4 proteins does the ultrastructure of myofibrils consist of?

A

actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin

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21
Q

What is actin?

A

thin, consists of 2 strands woven around each other. Form thin myofilaments

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22
Q

What is myosin?

A

thicker, consists of many rod-shaped filament tails with bulbous heads that project from the strand. Form thick myofilaments

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23
Q

What are small subsections of a myofibril called?

A

SARCOMERE

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24
Q

What does a sarcomere consist of?

A

z-line, I-band, H-zone, M-line, A-band, myosin, actin, zone of overlap

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25
Q

What is the z-line?

A

end points of a sarcomere, separating 2 sarcomeres

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26
Q

What is the H-zone?

A

zone consisting of only myosin

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27
Q

What is the I-band?

A

zone consisting of only actin

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28
Q

What is the M-line?

A

attachment site for the thick filaments (myosin)

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29
Q

What is the A-band?

A

centre of sarcomere contains both thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments, spans the H-zone

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30
Q

Where are the stores of glycogen in the body?

A

muscles and liver

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31
Q

Why do the muscles have a high glycogen store?

A

may need to respire rapidly during exercise

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32
Q

What stores can the muscles use for energy?

A

Glycogen - glucose store (large store)
Triglyceride - lipid store
Muscle tissue - protein store (causes some damage to muscles)

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33
Q

What happens in anaerobic respiration?

A

glycolysis only (without oxygen) produces lactate converted to lactic acid - provides a short release of energy

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34
Q

What is creatine phosphate?

A

made under aerobic conditions acts as a store of phosphate, as oxygen levels fall creatine phosphate enables the rapid conversion of ADP to ATP. only a very small amount can be stored

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35
Q

What does build up of lactic acid in the muscles cause?

A

fatigue and cramp

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36
Q

What are the 2 types of muscle fatigue?

A

neural and metabolic

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37
Q

What is muscle fatigue?

A

when muscle cannot contract/relax at correct time
decline of a muscle to generate force

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38
Q

WHat is neural fatigue?

A

nerves cannot generate an impulse

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39
Q

What is metabolic fatigue?

A

shortage of substances
accumulation of metabolites
lactate reduces the sensitivity of contractile proteins to Ca2+

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40
Q

What happens during sustained exercise (aerobic respiration)?

A

initially low ATP in muscles is used up quickly
creatine phosphate can then be used to phosphorylate ADP to replenish ATP (also short term)
Anaerobic respiration can produce limited ATP (net 2 ATP) but also produces lactate
Aerobic respiration must take over again due to lack of ATP and lactate build up

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41
Q

What is cramp?

A

severe involuntary contraction

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42
Q

How does the lactate production cause cramps?

A

lactate inhibits the Cl- ion effect - this means more likely to release Ca2+ and lactate allows K+ to enhance contraction

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43
Q

What are the features of Fast Twitch muscle?

A

fatigue rapidly
contract quickly, relax rapidly
store of glucose for glycolysis
anaerobic
low density of capillaries
high glycogen store
few mitochondria
high density of myofibrils

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44
Q

What are the features of Slow Twitch muscles?

A

Fatigue slower
contract slowly and for longer time
oxygen available even at low partial pressures
aerobic
good blood supply
have many mitochondria
low density of myofibrils
darker in colour
high concentration of myoglobin

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45
Q

What are the cells within the matrix of cartilage called?

A

chondrocytes

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46
Q

What do chondrocytes do?

A

responsible for cartilage formation, secrete an extracellular matrix containing elastic material and collagen

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47
Q

WHere are chondrocytes found?

A

in the matrix, within lacunae

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48
Q

WHat are lacunae?

A

spaces in the matrix

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49
Q

What is there none of in the matrix of cartilage?

A

no blood supply, so rely on diffusion from neighbouring blood vessels, metabolism really slow so repair takes a long time

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50
Q

What are the 3 types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline, Elastic, Fibro

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51
Q

Which cartilage is the weakest?

A

hyaline

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52
Q

Which cartilage is the strongest?

A

fibro

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53
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage located?

A

nose and ends of bones (to prevent friction)

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54
Q

Where is elastic cartilage located?

A

ear, epiglottis - elastic but maintains shape

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55
Q

WHere is fibro cartilage located?

A

intervertebral discs, ligaments - for loadbearing

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56
Q

Which cartilage has the highest proportion of collagen?

A

Hyaline

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57
Q

What does matrix of Elastic cartilage contain?

A

collagen, and also a network of elastic fibres

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58
Q

WHat does matrix of fibro cartilage contain?

A

collagen organised in dense fibres, organised in direction of stress, fewer chondrocytes

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59
Q

What is ossification?

A

process of bone formation by laying down of new bone

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60
Q

What happens to hyaline cartilage in the embryo?

A

it ossifies, osteoblasts secrete layers of bone matrix around the cartilage and blood vessels invade. In adults hyaline cartilage remains at ends of bones as articular cartilage.

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61
Q

what is an osteocyte?

A

cell that maintains the bone tissue, continually degrade bone

62
Q

What is an osteoblast?

A

cell that forms bone matrix, continually build up bone

63
Q

WHat is an osteogenic cell?

A

stem cell (can form any of the bone cells)

64
Q

What is an osteoclast?

A

cell that gets rid of deposited material

65
Q

What is the function of bones?

A

structural support
protect organs
point of contact for muscles

66
Q

What are 2 attributes of bones?

A

compressive strength - can push down length of bone with relative force
tensile strength - can also withstand tensile force (pulling)

67
Q

What are the 2 types of bone?

A

spongy bone, compact bone

68
Q

What is a spongy bone?

A

ends of long bones and in vertebrae. Network of spaces containing red bone marrow

69
Q

What is a compact bone?

A

also known as critical bone, around 80% of skeletal weight and 14% of average bodyweight
70% inorganic provides hardness and strength to bone (compressive force) mostly 2 hydroxyapatite compounds that contain either calcium or phosphate
30% organic provides tensile strength (resistance to pulling apart) mostly comprised of collagen fibres

70
Q

What structural units are compact bone made up of?

A

Haversian Systems

71
Q

How large are Haversian systems?

A

approximately 1mm apart and a few mm’s long

72
Q

what is the lamellae matrix produced by?

A

osteoblasts

73
Q

WHat do osteoblasts produce?

A

many products such as collagen, growth factors and enzymes. This forms the matrix

74
Q

After matrix is formed what will eventually happen?

A

eventually the matrix calcifies and the cell is trapped in the space called the lacunae

75
Q

How do chondrocytes communicate with other cells?

A

Through canaliculi

76
Q

WHat is the function of the canaliculi?

A

channels that radiate out of the lacunae into the bone lamellae share information and nutrients between cells

77
Q

How does each Haversian system in contact with each other?

A

by volkmann channels

78
Q

What is the Haversian canal?

A

provides network of blood vessels to the haversian systems

79
Q

What are volkmann canals?

A

they link haversian systems

80
Q

What makes up the Spinal cord?

A

cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum vertebrae, Coccyx vertebrae

81
Q

WHat is the cervical vertebrae?

A

consists of 7 vertebrae, smallest - allows for rotational neck movement

82
Q

What is thoracic vertebrae?

A

consists of 12 vertebrae, middle size - allows for lateral movement

83
Q

WHat is the lumbar vertebrae?

A

consists of 5 vertebrae, widest, compress and hold weight, gives support

84
Q

How many vertebrae do sacrum and coccyx consist of?

A

sacrum 5 fused, coccyx 4 fused

85
Q

WHat bones do the skull consist of?

A

carnial protion, facial portion

86
Q

What bones do the Pectoral Girdle consist of?

A

Scapula (back) and Clavicle

87
Q

What bones do the Thoracic cage consist of?

A

Sternum and ribs

88
Q

What does the pelvic girdle consist of?

A

hips, sacrum, coccyx

89
Q

What bones do the upper limb consist of?

A

Humerus, Radius, Ulna

90
Q

What bones do the lower limbs consist of?

A

Femur, Patella, Fibula, Tibia

91
Q

What bones do the hands consist of?

A

CArpels, metacarpals, phalanges

92
Q

WHat bones do the feet consist of?

A

tarsals, metatarsals

93
Q

WHat is the vertebral column?

A

spine

94
Q

WHat is a hinge joint?

A

in fingers, knees, elbows, toes - allow only bending and straightening movements

95
Q

WHat is a ball-and-socket joint?

A

in shoulders and hip - allow backward, forward, sideways, and rotating movements

96
Q

what is a moveable joint?

A

Joints that allow for movement, like gliding, ball-and-socket, and hinge

97
Q

What is an immovable joint?

A

bones of the skull - two or more bones are in close contact, but no movement can occur

98
Q

WHat is a gliding joint?

A

(ankles, wrist, spine) - 2 smooth surfaces that slide over one another to produce limited movement

99
Q

What parts make up the Vertebrae? (vertebral column)

A

Vertebral body, Vertebral arch, processes, facets, vertebral canal

100
Q

WHat is the vertebral body?

A

bears weight and resists compression

101
Q

What is the vertebral arch?

A

protects the spinal cord

102
Q

WHat are processes? (vertebrae)

A

for muscle attachment

103
Q

What are facets?

A

for articulation with adjacent vertebrae, linking together

104
Q

What is a vertebral canal?

A

where spinal cord will be

105
Q

WHat are the features of cervical vertebrae?

A

larger vertebral canal
vertebroarterial canal - for blood vessels

106
Q

What are the features of thoracic vertebrae?

A

superior costal facet for head of rib
processes for attachment to ribs as well as muscles

107
Q

What are the features of the Lumbar vertebrae?

A

Large vertebrae body - for loading
small vertebrae canal
Thick vertebral arch - greater protection
larger processes for attachment to larger muscles

108
Q

What is a lever?

A

a rigid structure that pivots about a fixed position called the falcrum

109
Q

What is the effort (lever)?

A

the force (muscle contraction) applied to the lever

110
Q

What is the load?

A

what the lever moves (body part)

111
Q

What are force magnifiers?

A

small effort in but a large force out

112
Q

WHat are distance magnifiers?

A

effort over a small distance in and same force out, but moves a longer distance

113
Q

WHat are first order levers?

A

has fulcrum in the middle, can be a force magnifier
e.g. spine and skull

114
Q

WHat are second order levers?

A

has the load in the middle, also force magnifiers
e.g. standing on tiptoes (ankles/feet)

115
Q

WHat are third order levers?

A

effort is in the middle
these are distANCE magnifiers
so effort will be greater than load
e.g. biceps and forearm

116
Q

How does Rickets occur?

A

When minerals (vitamin D and calcium) are not adequately absorbed

117
Q

What is Osteomalacia?

A

weakening of bones in adults
lack of calcium being absorbed into the body

118
Q

What are the symptoms of Osteomalacia?

A

bone tenderness, fractures, bow legs and knock-knees

119
Q

What is treatment of osteomalacia?

A

exposure to sunlight and a diet with calcium/vitamin D in it

120
Q

What is Brittle Bone Disease latin name?

A

Osteogenesis Impertecta

121
Q

What is the cause of brittle bone disease?

A

mutation that causes a change in the structure of collagen
replacement of glycine with a bulkier amino acid

122
Q

What are the symptoms of brittle bone disease?

A

fractures, poor muscle tone, loose joints

123
Q

WHat are the treatments of brittle bone disease?

A

drugs - increase mineral density of bone
surgery - place metal rods in long bones to enable children to walk.
physiotherapy - strengthen muscle and improve mobility

124
Q

What is Osteoporosis?

A

reduction in bone density beyond what is ‘normal’

125
Q

WHat are risk factors of osteoporosis?

A

low body weight
smoking
being a woman
drinking too much alcohol
ageing
genes
Caucasian or Asian origin

126
Q

What are symptoms of osteoporosis?

A

bones are fragile and more likely to break

127
Q

WHat are treatments of osteoporosis?

A

weight resistance training to increase bone density
foods rick in calcium and vitamin D
stop drinking alcohol/smoking

128
Q

What are the 4 types of fractures?

A

Oblique
Comminuted
Spiral
Compound

129
Q

What is an oblique fracture?

A

break occurs diagonally across the bone

130
Q

What is a comminuted fracture?

A

bone is broken, splintered or crushed into a number of pieces

131
Q

What is a spiral fracture?

A

The break travels around the bone

132
Q

WHat is a compound fracture?

A

The bone sticks through the skin

133
Q

What are treatments for fractures?

A

anti inflammatory drugs
immobilisation
surgery

134
Q

How does bone heal?

A

blod clot forms around the break, callus made of mainly collagen, osteoblasts form new bone, bone remodelling

135
Q

What is immobilisation?

A

immobilises (prevents movement) above and below the fracture and holds the fractured pieces in their normal position while the bone heals

136
Q

What is surgery needed for?

A

realign the bone
necessary in some where lengthy immobilisation could produce complications

137
Q

What are the causes of scoliosis?

A

in around 8 of 10 cases cause is unknown (idiopathic scoliosis)
in about 30 % of cases there is family history suggesting genetic predisposition

138
Q

WHat are treatments for scoliosis?

A

back bracing
surgery
physiotherapy

139
Q

When can surgery be done for scoliosis?

A

teenagers and young adults who have stopped growing operation is a spinal fusion

140
Q

WHat is a spinal fusion?

A

This is a major operation where the spine is straightened using metal rods, screws, hooks or wires, along with bits of bone taken from elsewhere in your body, often the hip.

141
Q

What is benefit of physiotherapy/exercise for scoliosis?

A

regular exercise is important. it can help improve muscle strength and may help reduce any back pain
unclear whether it helps scoliosis

142
Q

What is flat foot?

A

can cause strain on muscles and ligaments - genetic arthritis or injury

143
Q

What are knock knees?

A

normal up to 18 months
can result in older people from lack of vitamin D or calcium
injured shinbone
usually resolves naturally

144
Q

WHat is arthritis?

A

a group of condition where joints are inflamed

145
Q

WHat is Osteoarthritis?>

A

glycoprotein and collegn in articular cartilage at the ends of the joints are degraded faster than they are rebuilt
products of breakdown released into cavity
inflammation, joint swelling and spurs of bone may grow

146
Q

What are risks of osteoarthritis?

A

age (over 45)
weight
repeated flexing of joints

147
Q

What are treatments of Osteoarthritis?

A

physiotherapy - (promotes greater contraction force, strengthens muscles, stimulates cartilage)
NSAIDS’s (Non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs, Ibuprofen and aspirin)
Joint replacement

148
Q

What is Rheumatoid arthritis?

A

auto immune disorder that attacks the bone and cartilage at joints
inflamed joints, increased blood flow warms the joints and adds to swelling

149
Q

What are the risks of rheumatoid arthritis?

A

can be both Genetic and environmental
smoking
high intake if caffeine and red meat

150
Q

What are treatment for rheumatoid arthritis?

A

physiotherpay
NSAIDS’s
joint replacement
corticosteroid injections

151
Q

What are the pros of joint replacement?

A

pain relief
mobility restoration
better quality of life

152
Q

WHat are the cons of joint replacement?

A

blood clots
only last 15-20 years
long recovery

Worcester Sixth Biology 101 (31 decks)

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