Hoofdstuk 9

Question 1

hypothetical mediating variable

Answer 1

are constructs theorized as a mechanism to explain the link between a cause and an outcome, for example, an attitude intervening between an observable stimulus (S) and an observable response (R), providing the necessary connection.

Question 2

attitude

Answer 2

an evaluation, though definitions vary. Attitudes broadly dispose people to respond positively or negatively, as inferred from their specific cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses.

a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. (google)

Question 3

cognitive consistency theories

Answer 3

posit that inconsistencies – among cognitions, among affects, or between cognitions and affects – cause attitude change; cognitions may be general beliefs or beliefs about behavior.

Question 4

metatheoretical

Answer 4

stands are major, overarching conceptual frameworks common to several theories of a certain type.

Question 5

Dissonance theory

Answer 5

focuses on how inconsistency among cognitions causes a motivational state (dissonance) directed toward resolving that inconsistency.

Question 6

selective perception

Answer 6

posits that attitudes shape encoding; it divides into selective exposure, selective attention, and selective interpretation.

Question 7

selective exposure

Answer 7

seeks attitude-consistent information not already present.

Question 8

selective attention

Answer 8

heeds attitude-consistent information already present.

Question 9

selective interpretation

Answer 9

translates ambiguous information to be consistent with attitudes.

Question 10

de facto selective exposure

Answer 10

describes an environment biased toward attitude-consistent information.

Question 11

spreading the alternatives

Answer 11

a dissonance-reduction process, describes how people justify their choices by reinterpreting their chosen alternative as clearly superior, emphasizing its virtues and downplaying its flaws while doing the reverse for nonchosen alternatives.

Question 12

balance theory

Answer 12

describes structures in the perceiver’s mind representing the perceiver (P), another person (O), and the mutual attitude object (X).

Question 13

Dual attitudes

Answer 13

comprise an older, automatic attitude and the newer, explicitly accessible attitude

Question 14

associative-propositional evaluation model

Answer 14

attitudes combines implicit associative and deliberative propositional representations of attitudes.

(accounts for dissociations by conceptualizing implicit and explicit evaluations as the outcomes of two qualitatively distinct processes (google))

Question 15

multiple sufficient causes

Answer 15

Given several plausible causes, the weaker ones are discounted

Question 16

covariation model of attribution (also called the ANOVA model)

Answer 16

a normative model of causal inference, drawing on distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency information.

Question 17

risky shift (one direction of group polarization)

Answer 17

describes a group decision riskier than the average of the individual decisions, as a result of discussion.

Question 18

group polarization

Answer 18

describes a group decision more extreme than the average of the individual decisions, as a result of discussion

Question 19

normative influences

Answer 19

describe attitude (or behavior) change due to perceived norms and values.

Question 20

informational influence

Answer 20

describes attitude (or behavior) change that relies on a cognitive interpretation of the group’s beliefs.

Question 21

Persuasive arguments theory

Answer 21

proposes that attitudes in groups polarize toward relatively extreme (cautious or risky) alternatives when people are exposed to new information.

Question 22

social comparison theory

Answer 22

posits that people evaluate their position relative to similar others doing better or worse.

Question 23

self-categorization theories

Answer 23

builds on social identity theory (without the self-esteem predictions); proposing that people categorize themselves and others into distinct social groups, ingroup and outgroup members. SCT posits that social identities determine intergroup behavior because people act as group members, categorized by normative fit, and comparative fit in the
meta-contrast ratio.

Question 24

Agent based modeling

Answer 24

usually in a computer simulation, represents the distributions of individual units with particular characteristics (various attitudes, knowledge, goals, physical positions) all interacting with each other as autonomous actors to produce emergent outcome patterns.

Question 25

self-perception theory

Answer 25

a model of how people infer their own attitudes from their behavior and situational forces.

Question 26

implicit theories

Answer 26

personal histories are people’s construction of their own stability and change over time.

Question 27

temporal self-appraisal theory

Answer 27

holds that people distance themselves from their negative past selves and reduce the distance to their positive past selves

Question 28

compliance

Answer 28

operates to gain rewards and avoid punishments.

Question 29

internalization

Answer 29

operates to store attitude-relevant knowledge.

Question 30

Conviction

Answer 30

about an attitude includes emotional commitment, preoccupation, and cognitive elaboration.

(the subjective sense that an attitude is a valued possession or an important aspect of self-concept (google))

Question 31

Strength

Answer 31

an attitude includes various interrelated components, for example, importance and certainty.

Question 32

Importance

Answer 32

an attitude indicates a person’s interest or concern.

Question 33

Value relevant involvement

Answer 33

in an attitude indicates its importance to a person’s social or moral standards.

Question 34

Certainty

Answer 34

an attitude reflects its properties of mattering to one’s sense of self and organizing one’s experience.

Question 35

object-appraisal function

Answer 35

an attitude governs approach-avoidance decisions and includes a cognitive knowledge function and often a utilitarian, instrumental, or goal function.

the ability of attitudes to summarize the positive and negative attributes of objects. (google)

Question 36

knowledge function

Answer 36

an attitude is fundamentally cognitive and adaptive, related to object appraisal.

refers to our need for a world which is consistent and relatively stable (google)

Question 37

instrumental and adaptive functions

Answer 37

an attitude are adaptive, helping people to avoid pain and gain rewards.

Question 38

unipolar

Answer 38

having only one end, as in ranging from zero to much, or not-at-all to extremely in an attitude scale.

Question 39

value-expressive function

Answer 39

attitudes describes the importance to people of demonstrating and maintaining their long-term standards and orientations (see also value-relevant involvement).

express values that are integral to that person’s self-concept. (google)

Question 40

value relevant involvement

Answer 40

an attitude indicates its importance to a person’s social or moral standards.

Question 41

self-monitors

Answer 41

individual differences in the extent to which people use the social situation (as opposite to their inner predispositions) to guide their behavior. High self-monitoring people regulate themselves with regard to others, instead of relying more heavily on their inner thoughts and feelings.

Question 42

social-adjustive functions

Answer 42

attitudes signal interpersonal priorities, sensitivity to others, and getting along with people in general (see also impression-relevant involvement).

Question 43

impression-relevant involvement

Answer 43

relates to those behaviors which serve to create or maintain a specific image of the individual