Hoofdstuk 11

Question 1

Stereotypes

Answer 1

the cognitive side of intergroup bias, beliefs about groups.

Question 2

Prejudice

Answer 2

the affective side of intergroup bias, evaluations of, and feelings
about groups.

Question 3

blatant bias

Answer 3

overtly expressed ingroup favoritism or outgroup derogation, largely from perceived intergroup threats, both economic and valueoriented.

conscious beliefs, feelings, and behavior that people are perfectly willing to admit (google)

Question 4

subtle bias

Answer 4

automatic, ambiguous, and ambivalent, typically, from internal conflict between anti-prejudice norms and cultural stereotypes.

Question 5

Realistic group conflict

Answer 5

includes any competition over actual resources, such as prestige, money, or military power.

Question 6

social identity theory (SIT)

Answer 6

proposes that people interact along a continuum from interpersonal to intergroup identities.

Question 7

ingroup

Answer 7

one’s own group, often viewed as distinctive and positive on subjectively important dimensions.

Question 8

outgroup

Answer 8

any group to which one does not belong.

Question 9

state self-esteem

Answer 9

a temporary affective self-assessment, but it does not alter trait self-esteem, one’s long-term view of oneself.

Question 10

trait self-esteem

Answer 10

a long-term, chronic predisposition to evaluate self positively or negatively.

Question 11

Self-categorization theory (SCT)

Answer 11

builds on social identity theory (without the self-esteem predictions); proposing that people categorize themselves and others into distinct social groups, ingroup and outgroup members. SCT posits that social identities determine intergroup behavior because people act as group members, categorized by normative fit, and comparative fit in the meta-contrast ratio.

Question 12

Comparative fit

Answer 12

compares between-group differences to within-group differences in self-categorization theory.

Question 13

optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT)

Answer 13

argues that people balance individual autonomy and distinctiveness against belonging to the right group in order to reach a self-affirming and satisfying identity.

Question 14

minimal group paradigm

Answer 14

creates the least necessary conditions for the experience of belonging in a group.

Question 15

meta-contrast ratio

Answer 15

in statistical terms, is equivalent to an F or t-test, putting mean differences between groups over within-group variance in self-categorization theory.

Question 16

normative fit

Answer 16

describes socially shared meaning that differentiates groups in self-categorization.

Question 17

Subjective uncertainty reduction theory

Answer 17

proposes that ingroup norms reduce anxiety, especially when people are unsure in self-relevant domains

Question 18

ingroup favoritism

Answer 18

exploits the relative advantage of ingroup over outgroup, even to the detriment of self and own group’s absolute outcomes.

Question 19

Group homogeneity

Answer 19

the perception, often applied to outgroups, that they do not vary much; this includes stereotyping but also dispersion (perceived spread of attributes) and similarity.

Question 20

Social dominance theory (SDT)

Answer 20

argues that group hierarchies are universal and even evolutionarily adaptive in societies beyond the hunter-gatherer stage; some groups inevitably dominate others, and stable hierarchies regulate pointless conflict.

Question 21

legitimizing myths

Answer 21

complex cognitions (beliefs and ideology) that support the status quo.

Question 22

social dominance orientation (SDO)

Answer 22

an individual difference perspective on group hierarchy that correlates with a wide range of blatant biases.

Question 23

right-wing authoritarianism

Answer 23

a personality type that describes somebody who is naturally submissive to their authority figures, acts aggressively in the name of said authorities, and is conformist in thought and behavior.

Question 24

Mortality salience

Answer 24

occurs when people confront their own death.

Question 25

System justification theory (SJT)

Answer 25

posits that people seek to preserve and legitimate the status quo.

Question 26

Entitativity

Answer 26

the property of being a real thing.

the extent to which a group or collective is considered by others to be a real entity having unity, coherence, and internal organization rather than a set of independent individuals (google)

Question 27

Essence

Answer 27

endorses categories as having a foundational core often expressed as shared genes, blood, or nature.

Question 28

Multiculturalism

Answer 28

endorses the idea that groups differ in essential ways and that organizations should value those essential differences.

Question 29

Colorblind

Answer 29

approaches deny group differences and insists that everyone be treated identically, regardless of background.

Question 30

primary emotions

Answer 30

the primitive, simple emotions felt by either animals or humans.

Question 31

secondary emotions

Answer 31

the complex, subtle sentiments felt by humans but not animals.

Question 32

infrahuman

Answer 32

perception views another group or individual as essentially less-than-human.

Question 33

dehumanization

Answer 33

treats another individual or group as not fully human, closer to an object.

Question 34

uniquely human

Answer 34

attributes include culture, morality, logic, maturity, and refinement.

Question 35

typical human nature

Answer 35

includes warmth, emotional responsiveness, agency, curiosity, and depth.

Question 36

Unobtrusive measures

Answer 36

a measure obtained without disturbing the participant or alerting him or her that a measurement is being made

Question 37

who-said-what

Answer 37

experimental paradigm assesses how people’s memories confuse other people more within social category (e.g., two women) than between social categories (e.g., a man and a woman) (see category confusions).

Question 38

Category confusions

Answer 38

describe perceivers mixing up individuals who belong to the same social group (e.g., remembering only that the person was a woman but misremembering which one).

Question 39

Aversive racism

Answer 39

describes most people’s good intentions regarding race and their rejection of their own potentially racist beliefs. It results from negative reactions, simultaneously coupled with denial of the negativity, causing interracial interactions to be aversive.

Question 40

common ingroup identity model

Answer 40

describes going beyond group boundaries by including an (e.g., ethnic) outgroup, alongside the ingroup, in an overarching ingroup (e.g., citizens).

Question 41

indirect priming

Answer 41

assesses indirect attitudes by response-time facilitation from a valenced prime to an attitude object

the prime is not directly related to the target but, rather, is associated with another word that is not explicitly presented, which is, in turn, associated with the target. (google)

Question 42

lexical decision task

Answer 42

a common cognitive method asking participants to judge a sequence of letter strings as words or nonwords, often to assess response time after relevant primes.

Question 43

Category activation

Answer 43

reflects, in response to an individual, the initial, relatively automatic access to group-level expectations.

Question 44

cognitive load

Answer 44

which may involve the simultaneous performance of other tasks or attentional diversion to other stimuli, operates on the assumption that perceivers have limited online capacity.

Question 45

conditionally automatic

Answer 45

automatic responding that depends on context, including but not limited to goals.

Question 46

rebound

Answer 46

describes increased accessibility of a concept after attempted thought suppression.

Question 47

ultimate attribution error (UAE)

Answer 47

refers to the tendency of group members to attribute positive actions committed by their own group to positive ingroup qualities, and negative actions committed by the ingroup to external causes, and vice versa for the outgroup.

Question 48

entity theorists

Answer 48

have lay beliefs that personal attributes (e.g., intelligence) are relatively fixed, in contrast to incremental theorists.

Question 49

incremental theorists

Answer 49

have lay beliefs that personal attributes (e.g., intelligence) are malleable, in contrast to entity theorists.

Question 50

shifting standards

Answer 50

contrast evaluating an individual relative to the social category versus everyone else.

Question 51

modern racism

Answer 51

describes a form of subtle bias that focuses on attitudes, ideology, and symbols that all advantage the dominant majority over minorities.

Question 52

moral credentials

Answer 52

establish evidence for a person’s apparent lack of prejudice, freeing the person subsequently to act in prejudiced ways.

Question 53

Ambivalent stereotyping

Answer 53

describes a group as high on one dimension (e.g., competence) but low on another (e.g., warmth).

Question 54

stereotype content model (SCM)

Answer 54

posits two fundamental dimensions of social cognition, warmth (friendly, trustworthy) and competence (capability), with groups arrayed across the two-dimensional space.

Question 55

self-profitable

Answer 55

describes a person’s attributes (e.g., competence, agency) that further own interests.

Question 56

communality

Answer 56

describes an orientation to the welfare of specific and generalized others.

Question 57

other-profitable

Answer 57

describes a person’s attributes (e.g., friendliness, morality, communality) that further others’ interests.

Question 58

enemy images theory

Answer 58

posits that national and ethnic stereotypes fit dimensions of relative status, relative power, and goal compatibility.

Question 59

Racial ambivalence

Answer 59

describes Whites as simultaneously believing the Blacks are collectively disadvantaged due to circumstances and due to personal attributes and choices.

Question 60

Ambivalent sexism

Answer 60

posits that anti-female prejudices include not only hostile sexism but also subjectively benevolent sexism.

Question 61

hostile sexism

Answer 61

resents nontraditional women, who are seen as unfairly competing with men, trying to control men sexually, and resisting conventional roles.

negative views toward individuals who violate traditional gender roles (google)

Question 62

benevolent sexism

Answer 62

describes a subjectively positive but controlling and paternalistic attitude toward women, cherishing them only if they stay in traditional roles, subordinate to men.

evaluations of gender that may appear subjectively positive (subjective to the person who is evaluating), but are actually damaging to people and gender equality more broadly (google)

Question 63

attributional ambiguity

Answer 63

describes the dilemma of understanding whether a negative interpersonal outcome is a reaction to one’s personal attributes or bias against one’s social category.

Question 64

stigma consciousness

Answer 64

describes individual differences in stereotyped group members’ heightened vigilance in interacting with outgroup members.

Question 65

stereotype threat

Answer 65

describes people’s reaction to performance demands in domains that stereotype their social category as inferior.

socially premised psychological threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for which a negative stereotype about one’s group applies (google)

Question 66

disidentification

Answer 66

describes removing a domain from relevance to one’s personal or social identity.

Question 67

collective self-esteem

Answer 67

is one’s belief about one’s own private and others’ public regard for one’s group and one’s worth as a group member.

Question 68

private regard

Answer 68

describes one’s personal beliefs about the worth of one’s social category.

Question 69

public regard

Answer 69

describes one’s beliefs about how society values one’s social category.

Question 70

ask–answer– announce

Answer 70

a sequence of steps in considering, judging, and confronting prejudice.

Question 71

pluralistic ignorance

Answer 71

describes individuals believing their opinions to be unique, when in fact they are shared.

the (incorrect) belief that one’s personal attitudes are different from the majorities’ attitudes, and thus one goes along with what they think others think (google)

Question 72

meta-stereotypes

Answer 72

are people’s beliefs about what outgroups think of the ingroup.

Question 73

Category application

Answer 73

reflects, in response to an individual, the use of group expectations to form an impression.