Health and the People Flashcards
How was Al-Razi known in Europe?
Rhazes
What was Rhazes’ real name?
Al Razi
what important view about medicine did Al Razi have?
He stressed the need for observing patients
what diseases did Al Razi distinguish and how many books did he write?
measles and smallpox
150
what were simples/compounds
medicines made from 1 herb only/a mixture
what were the 3 main problems for surgeons?
pain infection bloodloss
what was the statute of labourers and what response did it get?
1351
prevented peasants moving tolook for better pay.
met with anger and revolt
how did vesalius realise Galen’s findings were wrong?
he saw that galen made mistakes because he’d used animals not humans
give an example of a way that vesalius corrected galen
no small holes in heart
what did Pare use instead of hot oil
mixture of rose oil turpentine and egg whites
what other things did Pare promote?
using ligatures, small strings around blood vessels
what books did Pare write
works on surgery, anatomie universalle
What were the Christian views on medicine in the medieval period?
Believed in following Jesus, who healed the sick
However as illnesses came from god they should not be healed
so praying was the best cure
encouraged belief in miraculous healing eg bone/hair relics from saints
Who stayed in Lazar houses?
people with leprosy
how many hospitals were started in between 1000 and 1500?
700
how did medieval hospitals get money?
financed by church or a wealthy patron
What was Ibn Sina known as in Europe and what did he write?
Avicenna, Canon of Medicine
What was the canon of medicine?
over 1m words long book containing all greek+islamic knowledge around ~1000
contained knowledge of 760 drugs
which book could be described as “over 1m words long book containing all greek+islamic knowledge around ~1000
contained knowledge of 760 drugs” and who wrote it
Ibn Sina’s Canon of Medicine
who wrote Doubts about Galen?
Al-Razi
Who was Ibn al-Nafis?
Physician who 1st described how blood circulates via lungs. Concluded Galen wrong.
books weren’t read in west because galen criticism
what was the islamic opinion of medicine?
people w/ mental illness treated w/ compassion as victims
rather than sinners punished by God
Who was Frugardi? (~1180)
widely used textbook “v practice of surgery”
warned against trepanning
tried ambitious chest operations
attempted to remove bladder stones
What was Daffy’s Elixir?
famous 17th century cure
“cured fits, worms, gout, kidney stones, tempered children” etc
contained many herbs like raisins aniseed saffron parsley
would do no harm but no good
What was the main ingredient in quack medicine in the renaissance?
alcohol and opium
how did the printing press affect medicine?
it allowed new ideas to spread quickly around Europe, and old and new books to be studied
what was the royal touch?
~3,000 people came per year to get cured bymagical King touch
how did the renaissance affect medicine?
printing press
desire for realistic art-> artists studied anatomy closely
new scientific method w/ hypotheses + experimentation. some started to question old beliefs
new weapons->new need for new surgeries and
medicines
new lands, new plants
what was the midwives book?
in 1671
Jane Sharp wrote abt her practical knowledge, based on her K & experience
Argued midwifery should be female only
what was the foundling hospital
James Coram opened it in 1741
created to tackle high rates of infant mortality
provided care for abandoned children
cared for foster children and many of them to live in hospital and be educated
how did charles 2 die
His doctor reported a “disturbance of the brain”
He was purged, bled, cauterised ,given 58 drugs. None helped his serious kidney disease
when was a cure found for scurvy
James Lind discovered that lemons/limes could be used as a cure in 1753
What was a Treatise on Asthma?
john Foyer published in 1698
1st to identify causes
suggested treatments eg clear air,diet
What was Robert Burton’s study on?
Mental Illness. Published 1621. recommended fresh air, exercise, music and laughter
What would quacks give their patients?
Mainly alcohol/opium to dull the pain but not treat the illness/injury
When did voluntary hospitals start to appear?
Early 18th. funded by inheritances. implemented new ways of treating sickness, not just caring
how did war affect the development of germ theory?
France lost franco-prussian war
fr+ger tensions raised
nations interested in medicine so less soldiers died from disease
govs funded scientists
how did govs affect dev of germ theory
pasteur+koch were equipped with a team and lab by the gov
how did luck affect germ theory
pasteur was looking at chicken cholera
by accident his assistantused an old weakened sample of microbes instead
when the chickens were infected they survived
they also survived when infected w/ stronger germs
this allowed them to have insights about immunisation
list some ways people tried to deal with contagion in the great plague
all gatherings (plays bear baiting etc) banned
no wandering beggars
“nursekeepers” quarantine for 28 days after being in a house w/ infected person
watchmen to guard infected houses
examiners find out which houses are infected, then give order to the constable to shut it up
what time period vaguely was the renaissance?
1450 - 1700
why did people object to innoculation?
“god sent illness to punish us for sin so preventing it is wrong”
people didn’t understand that getting a virus could help
people could accidentally die if given larger dose
poor people couldnt afford
innoculated people still contagious
where did jenner get his ideas from
his experimental mentor john hunter
smallpox innoculations common+wellknown
rumours of milkmaids not getting smallpox
Which scientists failed to carry out Jenner’s experiment?
George Pearson and William Woodville
Who were george pearson and william woodville?
two scientists who failed to carry out jenner’s experiment and when they failed their patient died
their equipment was contminated
when did parliament give jenner a grant and for how much?
£30,000 grant to set up clinic
£10,000 to research
which factors affected the discovery of the smallpox vaccine
individual genius (jenner)
govnment (grants from parliament)
when did louis pasteur publish his germ theory
1861
when was the first basic microscope invented?
1677
what was spontaneous generation?
the idea that microbes could appear as if by magic when something rotted (the disease casued the microbes)
who was the first to challenge spontaneous generation?
Friedrich Henle , he said microbes caused disease
what was specificity?
the idea that there were dif. types of bacteria
how was war a factor in the renaissance?
pare, guns meant new wounds
What was Nightingale’s background
Wealthy bg
Parents thought nursing innapropriate for a women of her class
Despite objections did 4 months training in Ger
What were Nightingale’s theories?
believed in miasma
disagreed with germ theory
hospitals should be clean + hygeinic
what changes did nightingale make to hospitals she worked at?
fresh air
clean sheets and floors
good food
trained nurses
plenty of light
privacy
what factors influenced nightingale?
-war- gov sent her to crimea, when she saw the situation it made her determined to improve the conditions
-she thought if she could improve the conditions there she could also improve the conditions in crimea she could do the same in england
-fought against conservative idea that women shouldn’t work
-religion- “god called her to help people”
consequences of nightingale?
consulted on hospital layouts
nursing became respected
established nurse training centre
first woman elected to royal statistical society
published over 30 books
“notes on nursing” was a best seller
improved hospital conditions
recieved order of merit
crimean soldier death rates from 40-2%
after nightingale improved conditions in the hospitals in the crimean war, how much did the death rate decrease?
40%-2%
How did Elizabeth Garrett Anderson eventually become a doctor?
worked as a surgical nurse
private education
passed an exam in society of apothecaries with the highest marks out of all the examinees, they promptly banned women
What did Elizabeth Garrett Anderson do?
-At her own practice she set up with an outpatient’s service for the poor, eventually becoming the New Hospital for Women and Children staffed entirely by women
-Learned french to get degree from paris university that accepted women
-Helped set up London School of Medicine for Women
How did Sophia Jex-Blake become a doctor?
Educated in private schools
Enrolled at Queen’s College
Father refused for her to work for money
Visited USA, tried to get into Harvard
Applied for Edinburgh Uni who said they couldn’t just let /her/ in, so she advertised for more students eventually the “edinburgh 7” were allowed in
When did Lister first test out his theories?
boy called jamie greenlees run over by cart
leg fractured
normally amputation would be done
lister set his leg and wrapped in carbolic acid soaked bandages
What was Lister’s method?
spray carbolic acid on surgeon’s hand, wounds, tools, soak bandages, ligatures and dressings
when was the first cholera epidemic and how many people did it kill?
1831
50,000 people
what are the symptoms of cholera?
violent sickness,painful diarrhoea,skin and nails turning black
Who published a report on living conditions and health of the poor in 1839?
Edwin Chadwick
what prompted the government to set up chadwick’s enquiry?
the 1837 and 1838 outbreaks of cholera
what were the main points of chadwick’s enquiry?
-disease caused by miasma
-bad air caused by filth. when these are improved death rate goes down
-people cannot develop clean habits until they have clean water
-more people are killed by filth than wars
-money would be saved if less parents died as rich ppl pay for orphans. healthier workforce, harder work
How many people did cholera kill in 1831?
50,000
In which year were 50,000 people killed from cholera?
1831
What was the significance of John Snow?
Birth of statistical analysis and epidemiology
What were the main points of the 1848 public health act?
-Central Board of Health
-Force some areas to set up a local health board where high death rate or 10%+ of ppl ask
-gave towns power to spend money on pub health imrpvoements
What could the local boards of health set up by the public health act do?
-appoint a specialist medical officer
-provide sewers
-inspect lodging houses
-check food quality
what were the disadvantages of the 1848 public health act?
not compulsory. many towns did nothing
When was the central board of health closed and why?
1854
strong resentment of gov interference
which pub. health law was passed in 1848?
public health act (1st)
When did John Snow go to investigate cholera?
after the 1854 epidemic
Who came first, Snow or Pasteur?
Snow
Who was the person who designed the sewers for London?
Joseph Bazalgette
When was the heat wave that worsened the great stink?
1858
how many pounds was bazalgette given to make the sewers?
£3m
When was the Sanitary Act?
1866
What was the sanitary act?
local councils responsible 4 sewers, water + street cleaning
towns needs a health inspector
When was vaccination made compulsory?
1853
When was the Artisans Dwelling Act?
1875
Which acts were passed in 1875?
the Artisans Dwelling Act and the Second Public Health Act
What was the Artisans Dwelling Act?
house owners responsible 4 keeping houses in good order, gave local councils power to buy+ demolish slum housing if not improved
What was the second public health act?
Same as the first, but compulsory this time
councils ordered to cover up sewers and keep them in good condition, supply fresh water collect rubbish and provide street lighting
in which year was the second public health act?
1875
What was the Sale of Food and Drugs act?
introduces guidelines for the sale of food and medicines
When were Bazalgette’s sewers finished?
1866
When were the london sewers started?
1858
Who discovered chloroform’s anaesthetic properties?
James Simpson
Can you use James Simpson falling asleep for chance?
No
What were the drawbacks of Ether?
caused vomiting, hard to inhale, highly flammable (surgeries were often performed by candlelight)
What did victoria say about chloroform and when?
after using it to give birth to prince leopold, she said “the effect was soothing, quieting and delightful beyond measure”
when did joseph lister perform his operation on jamie greenlees?
1965
by when was aseptic surgery becoming more common?
1890s
When did Pasteur discover a rabies vaccine?
1880
When did william morton give a demonstration of ether that helped its popularity spread to europe?
1846
When did victoria use chloroform to give birth?
18
53
What objections did people have with anesthetics?
-pain in childbirth is punishment for sinful women
-soldiers should deal with it
What effect did introduction of anesthetics have on surgery?
A major step for the patient
did not revolutionise; severe death rate from infection
what was infection from surgery known as?
hospital fever or hospitalism
what objections did people have with antiseptics?
-ppl thought lister was a fanatic for spraying everything in the theatre, thinking it too extreme
-carbolic acid made everything smell and the surgeons’ skin crack
-caused extra work
-convinced speed was still essential (due to bleeding mostly) and this slowed it down
-some people tested his method and due to being less thorough it made them criticise him; some claimed it prevented the body’s defence mechanisms from working properly
-ideas of germ theory spread slowly and many surgeons found the idea of tiny microbes hard to accept
-many people felt defensieve as patients dying in surgery was the norm
-he was not a showman and did not give impressive public displays
-he was always experimenting with new techniques but other surgeons said he was doing it because carbolic acid didn’t work
What was the impact of Bazalgette’s sewers?
-cholera never returned
-made parliament want to improve public health more
What is public health?
The health of a population as a whole, especially as the subject of gov regulation and support
Eg vaccines, epidemics, water supply and living conditions
What was the name of the doctor who believed cholera was waterborne?
John snow
When did Snow do his work on cholera?
1854
how did Lister contribute to the research on penicillin?
IN 1872 he treated a nurse using penicillum, but he didn’t do more than record its name and details
what bacteria was killed by the penicillum in the petri dish?
Staphyloccoci
when was fleming working working with staphyloccoci?
1928
After discovering that the area around the penicillum was free of bacteria, what did Fleming do?
small scale tests on penicillin, wiping it on infected cuts and scratches that had been infected with different germs, but he didn’t investigate it to its full potential
used it as a local antiseptic to treat conjunctivitis
What did Florey and Chain first do?
Got some penicillin from fleming’s store and purified it, testing it on mice injected with bacteria. They survived (in 1940)
How much more penicillin did f+c need for a human than a mouse?
3000x the dose
when did f and c first test penicillin on a human?
in 1941 a man pricked with rose thorn infected with staphyloccoci was given penicillin but although he started to recover he eventually died
when did f and c go to the usa
nov 1941 just after pearl harbour. the us gov agreed to pay millions of dollars for us chemical firms to produce hundreds of thousands of doses for allied soldiers
When was the british national blood transfusion service set up?
1938
Why did the gov listen to booth and rowantree’s reports on poor health and poverty?
concern that an unhealthy workforc could not work as hard
what was the beveridge report?
a report written sir william beveridge that suggests that people should be free from disease, ignorance, squalor and basic necessities and that the gov should take charge from “cradle to grave”
when was the beveridge report written?
1942
what happened in 1973?
Geoff Hounsfield invents the CAT scanner which uses xray images
1987?
MRI scanning used to locate brain tumours or stroke damage
when was the first sheep cloned?
1996
what are endoscopes and when were they developped?
fibre optic cables with a light source allowing doctors to go into small cuts in the skin to see inside the body
what is the name for fibre optic cables with a light source allowing doctors to go into small cuts in the skin to see inside the body and when were they invented
1975 endoscopes
when was the CAT scanner invented and by who?
Geoff Hounsfield in 1973
When was the school meals act?
1906
what did the school meals act of 1906 say?
allowed locals councils to provide school meals w/ poor children getting them for free
what advancements were made in ww1?
how to store blood,mobile xray machines,plastic surgery
when was smallpox eradicated?
1980
When was there a new wave of alternative medicines?
1980
when was dna discovered?
1953
Who and when introduced the national insurance act?
liberal gov in 1910s
what was the national insurance act?
provides unemployment benefit, free medical treatment, sickness pay and old age pensions
In what ways did WW1 impact medicine? (ADD MORE)
shell shock, infection, blood transfusions, plastic surgery,xray
How was knowledge about shell shock/PTSD affected by WW1?
Before the army refused to acknowledge it.
By the end there were too many cases
Symptoms include panic attacks, shaking,refusal to speak/move
How was knowledge about plastic surgery affected by WW1? (part 1- gillie)
Harold Gillie developed it from scratch
special unit to graft skin+ treat severe facial wounds
recognised as 1 of the 1st surgeons to consider appearance
set up queen’s hospital
How was knowledge about plastic surgery affected by WW1? (part 2- gillie’s hospital)
set up queen’s hospital in 1917 and by 1921 provided over 1000 beds, treating 5000 servicemen by 1921
How was knowledge about broken bones affected by WW1?
new bone repair techniques
eg keller blake splint
extended the broken leg in traction, helping bones knit together more securely.
still used today
How was knowledge about xrays affected by WW1?
were [verb] in 1895, mobile xray machines were developed to find where bullets/shrapnel were
How was knowledge about blood transfusions affected by WW1?
tried 4
yrs
1st success in 1900
ppl didn’t know how to store it
in 1914 Albert Hustin found glucose&sodium citrate stopped blood clotting
Other advances allowed for blood to be bottled, packed in ice and
transported
Who was McIndoe?
Gillie’s cousin who worked on reconstructing facial/hand wounds
How was public health affected by WW2?
-Gov propaganda to stay “fighting fit”
-coughs n sneezes spread diseases
-poor children evacuated to rich houses in countryside which showed the differences in pub.health
-“dig for victory” people growing own veg more healthy
cure for gas gangrene?
whale oil to make a barrier
When was the first open heart surgery?
1950
when is the free TB vaccine in the UK?
1948
when was the first miniature hearing aid produced?
1952
when is the first kidney transplant?
1952
what is the triple vaccine and when was it launched in the uk?
1954
diptheria, whooping cough and tetanus
when was the free polio vaccine?
1955
which free vaccine in 1948?
TB
which surgical advancement in 1952?
first kidney transplant
which free vaccine in 1954?
triple- diptheria whooping cough and tetanus
which free vaccine in 1955?
polio
when was cyclosporine developed?
1970
what does cyclosporine do?
stops body rejecting transplanted organs
which drug developed in 1970 stops the body rejecting transplanted organs?
cyclosporine
when is the first heart transplant?
1967, 68 in UK
when and who is the first person to be born via IVF?
Louise Brown in 1978
when was the CAT scanner invented and what did it do?
1973, used xray images from many angles to build a 3d model
when and who is the first liver heart and lung transplant patient?
Davina Thompson in 1986
When is smallpox declared eradicated?
1980
when is the first full face transplant
2008
when is the human genome project launched?
1990
when is the first cloned animal?
96
What was the free school meals act?
poor kids could have at least one proper meal a day
What law around births was passed in 1907?
births should be registered to local health visitor
council could only help children they knew about
impact of old age pensions act
free pensions to over70s
old ppl had to work until they died/move in with already poor kids
what did labour exchanges do?
helped unemployed people find work
what did the national insurance act do?
working men payed a weekly stamp into the scheme and could draw money out if they were sick and couldn’t work
what was the shops act?
introduced a weekly half day holiday for shop workers
what was the parliament act?
payed MPs
