General Vocab Flashcards
A priori
Denoting conclusions derived from premises or principles: deducing from prior assumptions.
Absolute Threshold
The minimum intensitiy of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation.
Acquired Communication Disorder
Communication disorder that occurs secondary to trauma or neurological disorder.
Action Potential
The electrical signal that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons.
Acuity
Sharpness of perception. Whereas visual acuity is sharpness of vision and auditory acuity sharpness of hearing, sensory acuity is the precision with which any sensory stimulation is perceived.
Adaptation(s)
In evolutionary theory, the physical characteristics, skills, or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations.
Afferent Neuron
Afferent neurons (also known as sensory neurons or afferent nerve fibers) are pathways that carry sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord).
Agonist
A chemical substance that effectively increases the activity of a neurotransmitter by imitating its effects.
Amiable Skepticism
Wariness of new scientific findings. Carefully weighing evidence in deciding what to believe.
Amplitude
magnitude or extent (e.g., of a stimulus) or peak value (e.g., of a sinusoid wave).
Amygdala
A brain structure that serves a vital role in learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information.
Angular Gyrus
A ridge along the lower surface of the parietal lobe of the brain. This region has been proposed as the key area of reading and writing function.
Antagonist
A chemical substance that decreases or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.
Aphasia
A language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production.
Autonomic Nervous System
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the body’s glands nad internal organs.
Autoreceptor
A molecule in the membrane of a presynaptic neuron which regulates the synthesis and release of a neurotransmitter by that neuron through monitoring how much transmitter has been released and “telling” the neuron.
Axon
A long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons
Basilar Membrane
a thin strip of tissue within the cochlea.
Behaviorism
A psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing observable behavior.
Biopsychosocial Approach (model)
A model of health that integrates the effects of biological, behavioral, and social factors on health and illness.
Blind Spot
Point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field.
Brain Stem
An extension of the spinal chord; it houses structures that control functions associated with survival, such as heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm.
Broca’s Area
A small portion of the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language.
Case Study
A descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an unusual person or organization.
Cell Body
The site in the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated.
Central Nervous System
The brain and the spinal cord.
Cerebellum
A large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brain stem; it is essential for coordinated movement and balance.
Cochlea
a fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells (hair cells) of the auditory system
Cognitive Psychology
The study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, and decision making.
Cone(s)
Retinal cells that respond to higher levels of light and result in color perception.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to notice and search for information that confirms one’s beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms one’s beliefs.
Confound
Anything that affects a dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study.
Consolidation
the neurobiological processes by which a permanent memory is formed following a learning experience
Construct Validity
The extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure.
Contingency
the degree of predictive relationship between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus during a classical conditioning trial. A strong contingency is one in which the presence of the neutral stimulus is very likely to predict the presence of the unconditioned stimulus.
Convenience Sampling
Any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is governed by chance or ready availability (Ex.Interviewing the first 50 people to exit a store). Convenience sampling is neither random nor systematic and data obtained from convenience sampling may not generalize to the larger population.
Cornea
Transparent covering over the eye.
Corpus Callosum
A massive bridge of millions of axons that connects the hemispheres and allows information to flow between them.
Correlation
The relationship or association between two variables.
Correlation Coefficient
A descriptive statistic that indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Covariation
A relationship between two quantitative variables wherein one variable increases (or decreases) in value, the corresponding values of the other variable also tends to increase (or decrease).
Cross-Sectional Design
Methodology to examine a characteristic by comparing individuals of different ages (contrast with longitudinal design).
Dendrite(s)
Branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons.
Dependent Variable
The variable that gets measured in a research study.
Descriptive Statistics
Statistics that summarize the data collected in the study.
Difference Threshold
The minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference between two stimuli.
Directionality Problem
A problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable.
Dualism
Viewpoint that the mind and body both exist as separate entities.
Eardrum
a conically shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear and serves to transform the pressure waves of sounds into mechanical vibration of the ossicles
EEG (Electroencephalograph)
A device that measures electrical activity in the brain.
Efferent Neuron
Efferent Neurons (also known as efferent nerve fibers) are conducting cells that carry information from the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to muscles and organs throughout the body.
Elimination of Spuriousness
One of the requirements for causality. Spuriousness refers to possibility that an observed relationship in a study may be the result of unmeasured variables that are influencing our variables called confounds. This interferes with our ability to draw strong conclusions about causation between our two variables of interest. So to provide evidence of causation, we have to eliminate the spurious confounds.
Empirical Method
Method for acquiring knowledge based on an observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities.
Encoding
the input of information into the memory system.
Endocrine System
A communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and action.
Event-Related Potential
Brain’s electrical reaction to a psychologically meaningful environment event, as measured by the electroencephlogram (EEG). Also known as the evoked potential.
Evolution
The process of gradual change in the appearance of populations of organisms that takes place over generations.
Experimental Design
Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different groups in an experiment. Types of design include repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.
External Validity
The degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations.
Falsifiable
Able to be disproven by experimental results.
Fast Fibers
Neurons that communicate immediate, acute pain to the central nervous system. These neurons are responsible for the sharp pain we feel when we are first injured.
Fovea
The center of the retina, where cones are densely packed.
Frequency
the number of repetitions of a periodic waveform in a given unit of time
Frontal Lobe
Regions of the cerebral cortex- at the front of the brain- important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex.
Functionalism
Focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment.
Ganglion Cells
Type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation.
Generalize
Inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population.
Gestalt Psychology
Field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Hair Cells
receptor cells of the inner ear
Hawthorne Effect
Increase in performance of individuals who are noticed, watched, and paid attention to by researcher or supervisors.
Hemineglect
The result of damage (e.g., as the result of a stroke) to one of the two hemispheres of the brain (most commonly the right hemisphere), hemineglect results in an individual becoming unaware of one side of space. The neglected half is often contralateral (or opposite) to the side that the damage occurred on. This could include being fulling unaware of objects, other people, or even their own body on the half of space opposite the damage.
Hindsight Bias
Belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t.
Hippocampus
A brain structure that is associated with the formation of memories.
Hypothalamus
A brain structure that is involved in the regulation of bodily functions, including body temperature, body rhythms, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; it also influences our basic motivated behaviors.
Hypothesis
A specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on.
Independent Variable
The variable that gets manipulated in a research study.
Inferential Statistics
A set of assumptions and procedures used to evaluate the likelihood that an observed effect is present in the population from which a the sample was drawn.
Informed Consent
Ethical requirement whereby research subjects agree to participate in a study only after they recieve full disclosure about the nature of the study and their own role in it.
Internal Validity
The degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds.
Interneuron
One of three types of neurons; these neurons communicate within local or short-distance circuits.
Introspection
A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts.
Ion Channel
A group of proteins forming a channel that spans a cell membrane, allowing the passage of ions between the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm of the cell.
Iris
Colored portion of the eye.
Lens
Curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye.
Limbic System
Part of the forebrain involved in emotion, the ability to learn and to control impulses, and the regulation of sex, hunger, thirst, and aggression drives.
Longitudinal Design
Systematic study of changes in the same individual or group examined over time (contrast with cross-sectional design).
Mean
A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers.
Measure of Central Tendency
The middle of a data set or where the scores in a data set tend to fall. There are three measures of central tendency; these tell us the average score (mean), the middle of the score range (median), and the most frequent score (mode).
Measure of Variability
Measures of Variability are statistics that describe the amount of difference and spread in a data set. These measures include variance, standard deviation, and standard error of the mean.
Median
A measure of central tendency that is the value of a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest values.
Medulla
Part of the hindbrain that regulates such automatic bodily functions as breathing and digestion.
Mind/Body Problem
A fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?
Mode
A measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers.
Motor Cortex
Strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement.
MRI
Magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged.
Myelin Sheath
A fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon.
Naturalistic Observation
A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is a passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior.
Nature
Genes and biology.
Neural Networks
Neural networks are made of neurons that are connected or functionally related in a nervous system. They are often identified as groups of neurons that perform a specific physiological function.
Neural Plasticity (neuroplasticity)
Nervous system’s ability to change.
Neuron(s)
The basic units of the nervous system; cells that recieve, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system. They operate through electrical impulses, communicate with other neurons through chemical signals, and form neural networks.
Neurotransmitter(s)
Chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another.
Node of Ranvier
A substance in a retinal rod or retinal cone which interacts with light to initiate a chemical cascade resulting in the conversion of light energy into an electrical signal.
Nurture
Environment and culture.
Observational Study
Research in which the experimenter passively observes the behavior of the participants without any attempt at intervention or manipulation of the behaviors being observed. Such studies typically involve observation of cases under naturalistic conditions rather than experimental conditions. Trained individuals record activities, events, or processes as precisely and completely as possible without personal interpretation.
Occipital Lobe
Regions of the cerebral cortex- at the back of the brain- important for vision.
Olfactory Bulb
a bulb-like structure at the tip of the frontal lobe where the olfactory nerves begin.
Operational Definition
A definition that qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable so the variable can be understood objectively.
Optic Chiasm
X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the oposite side of the brain.
Optic Nerve
Carries visual information from the retina to the brain.
Ossicles
three tiny bones contained in the middle ear
Oval Window
a thin membrane of the cochlea
Overconfidence Effect
A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one’s actual ability to perform a task successfully.
Parasympathetic Division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it returns the body to its resting state.
Parietal Lobe
Regions of the cerebral cortex- in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes- important for the sense of touch and for attention to the environment.
Parsimonious
The concept that the simplest explanation of an event or observation is the preferred explanation.
Participant Observation
A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is involved in the situation.
Perception
The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
All nerve cells in the body that are not part of the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
A method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream.
Photopigment
A substance in a retinal rod or retinal cone which interacts with light to initiate a chemical reaction resulting in the conversion of light energy into an electrical signal.
Phrenology
The pseudoscience of measuring the areas of a person’s skill. Areas were charted and claimed to correspond with particular personality traits or characteristics.
Pons
Part of the hindbrain that controls such automatic bodily functions as breathing and digestion.
Population
Everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in.
Post hoc
A statistical procedure conducted on the basis of the findings obtained from previous analyses.
Pre-Frontal Cortex (PFC)
The frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality.
Primary Visual Cortex
The primary visual cortex is located in the posterior pole of the occipital lobe and is the simplest, earliest cortical visual area. It is highly specialized for processing information about static and moving objects and is excellent in pattern recognition.
Propagatio
The movement of an action potential from the axon hillock to the terminal fibers.
Psychoanalytic Approach
The psychoanalytic approach focuses on the importance of the unconscious mind (not the conscious mind). Psychoanalytic perspective dictates that behavior is determined by your past experiences that are left in the Unconscious Mind (people are unaware of them).
Psychology
Scientific study of the mind and behavior.
Pupil
Small opening in the eye through which light passes.
Random Assignment
Placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of an independent variable.
Random Sampling
Subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being assigned to either group.
Reactivity
The phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed.
Recognition
identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again.
Reliability
The degree to which a measure is stable and consistent over time.
Resting Potential
The state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals.
Reticular Formation
Midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity.
Retna
The thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball; it contains the sensory receptors that transduce light into neural signals.
Retrieval
getting the information out of memory and back into awareness
Reuptake
The process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity.
Rod(s)
Retinal cells that respond to low levels of light and result in black-and-white perception.
Saltatory Conduction
A type of conduction of nerve impulses that occurs in myelinated fibers, in which the impulses skip from one node of Ranvier to the next. This permits much faster conduction velocities compared with those of unmyelinated fibers.
Sample
A subset of a population.
Scientific Method
A systematic and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena, used to achieve the goals of description, prediction, control, and explanation; it involves an interaction among reserach, theories, and hypothesis.
Self-Report
A statement or series of answers to questions that an individual provides about his or her state, feelings, thoughts, beliefs, past behaviors, and so forth. Self-report methods rely on the honesty and self-awareness of the participant and are used especially to measure behaviors or traits that cannot easily be directly observed by others.
Semicircular Canals
a set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance.
Sensation
The detection of external stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain.
Slow Fibers
Neurons that communicate pain information more slowly to the central nervous system. These neurons are responsible for the dull, aching pain we often feel for some time after an injury.
Social Psychology
The study of how people influence other people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the skin, muscles, and joints.
Somatosensory Cortex
Essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.
Split Brain
A condition that occurs when the corpus callosum is surgically cut and the two hemispheres of the brain do not recieve information directly from each other.
Standard Deviation
A statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean.
Storage
is the retention of the encoded information.
Stratified Sampling
The process of selecting a sample from a population comprised of various subgroups (strata) in such a way that each subgroup is represented.
Structuralism
Understanding the conscious experience through introspection.
Subliminal
Denoting or relating to stimuli that are below the difference threshold or absolute threshold.
Supertaster
a person with uncommonly low gustatory thresholds and strong responses to moderate concentrations of taste stimuli. Supertasters have unusually high numbers of taste buds.
Supraliminal
Describing stimulation that is above the difference threshold or absolute threshold.
Sympathetic Division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for action.
Synapse
The gap between the axon of a “sending” neuron and the dendrites of a “receiving” neuron; the site at which chemical communication occurs between neurons
Temporal Lobe(s)
Regions of the cerebral cortex- below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes- important for processing auditory information, for memory, and for object and face perception.
Temporal Precedence
In establishing cause–effect relationships between two variables, the principle that the cause must be shown to have occurred before the effect. Two other requirements are those of covariation and nonspuriousness (i.e., there are no plausible alternative explanations for the observed relationship).
Terminal Button
At the ends of axons, small nodules that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse.
Thalamus
The gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex.
Theory
A model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. Theories are based on empirical evidence.
Third Variable Problem
A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest.
TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)
The use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions.
Transduction
The process by which sensory stimuli are converted to signals the brain can interpret.
Variable
Something in the world that can vary and that a researcher can manipulate (change), measure (evaluate), or both.
Werkicke’s Area
An area of the left hemisphere where the temporal and parietal lobes meet, involved in speech comprehension.
Working memory
the short-term maintenance and manipulation of information necessary for performing complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.
