gender development Flashcards
are there major differences between the genders?
- no; there are more similarities than differences
- there is also great variability within each gender
- the only substantial domain is motor development
sex
sex chromosomes, physical characteristics, biological origins
gender
social assignment or self-categorization of gender
gender identity examples
cisgender, bigender, agender, nonbinary, transgender
gender typing
process of gender socialization
gender-typed
stereotyped/expected behaviors for one’s assigned gender
cross gender-typed
stereotyped/expected behaviors for a gender other than the one assigned
gender non-conforming
individuals high in cross-gender-typed behaviors
effect size
the magnitude of difference between averages and the amount of overlap in distributions (from trivial to very large)
meta-analysis
summarized numbers from several states
biological influences on gender
- genes, not especially important
- hormones, more important!
androgens
class of steroid hormones, including testosterone
organizing influences
potential result of sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiation and organization
activating influences
a potential result of sex-linked hormones affecting contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioral responses
evidence that gender is not binary:
- neuroscience: no unique brain structures
- behavioral neuroendocrinology: hormones, all have testosterone/androgens
- gender psychology: genders may display both types of behaviors
- cultural psychology: “third gender” practices
self-socialization
children’s cognitions lead them to act in accord with their beliefs, activity practices, actions, etc.
Cognitive Developmental Theory
- Lawrence Kohlberg, 1960s
- learning through observation/interaction, and understanding of gender is influenced through cognitive ability
gender identity
age 2.5-4, children identify themselves, but don’t realize gender is permanent
gender stability
4-6, gender is constant over time, but is influenced by superficial characteristics
gender constancy
6 years and older, gender is invariant despite superficial changes, concrete skills!
Gender Schema Theory
- Sandra Bern, 1981
- evidence in item preference experiment
gender schemas
organized representations about gender, including stereotypes, ingroup, outgroup, and own-gender schemas
gender schema filter
initial evaluation of information as relevant for one’s own gender
interest filter
initial evaluation of information as being personally interesting
Social Cognitive Theory
- Albert Bandura and Kay Bussey
- triadic model, based on personal, environmental, and behavioral factors
tutition
direct teaching through gender socialization
enactive experience
learning to take into account the reactions of one’s past behavior evoked in others
observational learning
learning through watching others actions and received consequences…attention, memory, production, and motivation
Social Identity Theory
influence of group membership on gender identity
ingroup bias
tendency to evaluate individuals associated with the ingroup more positively or superior
ingroup assimilation
individuals are socialized to conform the group’s norms
intersectionality
intersection of various identities
opportunity structure
economic/social resources offered by the macrosystem
ex. activities, play styles, preferences, representation
milestones in infancy/toddlerhood
- can distinguish perceptual cues in infancy
- 18 months: form gender-stereotypes association
- 2.5-3 y/o: label others and their own gender
milestones in preschool years
age 3-5, begin avoiding peers who violate gender norms, form gender stereotypes, differences in play (affordances)
gender segregation
tendency for cross-typed activities associated with same-gender peers
milestones in middle childhood
age 6-10, the emergence of different communication styles, understanding of gender constancy and gender discrimination
assertion
one’s attempt to exert influence over the environment
affiliation
tendency to affirm connection with others through being emotionally open, supportive
collaboration
coordination of affiliation and assertion, an initiative for joint activity
milestones in adolescence
- stronger conformance to traditional gender roles
- change and exploration
gender role intensification
heightened concerns with adhering to traditional gender roles that mat occur during adolescence
ambivalent sexism
hostile sexism (belief that men are above women) and benevolent sexism (belief that women need protecting from men)
gender role flexibility
recognition of gender roles as social conventions and adoption of more flexible attitudes
do adults treat the sexes differently?
adult gender and experience influence the treatment of children, Dr. Klaus speaking experiment
differences in peer interactions based on sex:
group size, disclosure levels, intimacy, rumination, activities, etc.
hierarchy of gender
toxic masculinity, less flexibility for men in gender expression
intersex conditions
an individual of one genetic sex can develop genitalia associated with the other or multiple genders or partial development of genitalia
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
a recessive gene causes high androgen hormones, primarily affects females, partially masculinizes external genitalia…does not typically affect gender indentiy
androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
androgen receptors malfunction, may have female external genitalia, commonly influences gender identity
puberty
developmental period marked by the ability to reproduce (menarche and spermarche)
adrenarche
maturation of adrenal glands, correlates with onset of sexual attraction, prior to physical change
gender and cognitive abilities/academic achievement
- no major differences, boys have mild advantage in spatial reasoning, girls in verbal/writing skills
gender and interpersonal goals/communication
greater in adolescence, and smaller in adulthood, girls have a slight advantage in language skills
gender and aggressive behavior
- indirect vs. direct forms of aggression
- motivational/cultural influences
- peer/parental influences
