FSOT Master 6 Flashcards
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
An agency of the United States government, charged with directing civilian programs in aeronautics research and space exploration. NASA maintains several facilities, most notably the Johnson Space Center in Houston (which selects space crew personnel and is responsible for ground direction of space flights), and the launching pads at Cape Canaveral in Florida.
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
An organization that promotes the rights and welfare of black people. The NAACP is the oldest civil rights organization in the United States, founded in 1909. Among the NAACP’s achievements was a lawsuit that resulted in the Supreme Court’s landmark decision in Brown versus Board of Education, in 1954, which declared the segregation of public schools unconstitutional. (See also W. E. B. DuBois and separate but equal.)
National chairman
A paid, full-time manager of a party’s day-to-day work who is elected by the national committee. (Ch. 7)
National committee
A committee of delegates from each state and territory that runs party affairs between national conventions. (Ch. 7)
National convention
A meeting of party delegates elected in state primaries, caucuses, or conventions that is held every four years. Its primary purpose is to nominate presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to ratify a campaign platform. (Ch. 7)
National Economic Council?
The National Economic Council (NEC) is a United States government agency in the Executive Office of the President. Created by President Bill Clinton in 1993 by Executive Order, its functions are to coordinate policy-making for domestic and international economic issues, coordinate economic policy advice for the President, ensure that policy decisions and programs are consistent with the President’s economic goals, and monitor implementation of the President’s economic policy agenda. The Director of the NEC is also Assistant to the President for Economic Policy.
National Guard
The volunteer military forces of each state, which the governor of a state can summon in times of civil disorder or natural disaster. Through congressional and presidential order, the National Guard can be called into service in the regular United States army.
National Labor Relations Act (or Wagner Act)?
A 1935 United States federal law that protects the rights of most workers in the private sector to organize labor unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take part in strikes and other forms of concerted activity in support of their demands. The Act does not, on the other hand, cover those workers who are covered by the Railway Labor Act, agricultural employees, domestic employees, supervisors, independent contractors and some close relatives of individual employers.
National Labor Relations Board
An agency of the United States government, charged with mediating disputes between labor and management, and responsible for preventing unfair labor practices, such as the harassment of labor unions by business corporations. The NLRB attempts to maintain a position of neutrality, favoring neither labor nor management.
National nominating conventions
The governing authority of the political party. They give direction to the national party chairperson, the spokesperson of the party, and the person who heads the national committee, the governing body of the party. They are also the forums where presidential candidates are given the official nod by their parties.
National Organization for Women
A major feminist organization, founded in the middle 1960s, when the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission failed to enforce a clause in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination on the basis of gender. One of its founders was Betty Friedan. NOW has worked to promote occupational opportunities for women and has supported legislative proposals that would guarantee women equality with men.
national party convention
a antioanl meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every fours years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules
National Party Platform
A statement of the general and specific philosophy and policy goals of a political party, usually promulgated at the national convention
National Rifle Association
An organization that acts as a powerful lobby against governmental restrictions on the private ownership of guns. NRA supporters argue that “guns don’t kill people; people kill people.†They often cite the Second Amendment to the Constitution, which states: “A well-regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.â€
National Security Council
Chaired by the president, it is the lead advisory board in the area of national and international security. The other members of the council include the vice president, secretaries of state and defense, director of the Central Intelligence Agency, and chair of the joint chiefs of staff.
national security council
Presidential advisory board established in 1947 to consult with the president on matters of defense and foreign policy.
national supremacy
constitutional doctrine that whenever conflict occurs between the constitutionally authorized actions of the national gov and those of a state or local gov, the actions of the fed gov prevail
national supremacy article
Article 6; “This Constiution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made…under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every States shall e bound thereby; any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding”
Nationalization of the Bill of Rights
A judicial doctrine of the Fourteenth Amendment that applied the Bill of Rights to the states in matters such as segregation.
natural law
God’s or nature’s law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law
Natural rights
Part of Locke’s philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and property.
naturalization
The process by which a foreign citizen becomes a citizen of a new country. Millions of immigrants to the United States have become American citizens. Requirements for naturalization in the United States include residency for several years, ability to communicate in English, demonstrated knowledge of American history and government, and a dedication to American values that includes no membership in subversive organizations, such as the Communist party.
Naturalization Act of 1870?
This Naturalization Act limited American citizenship to “white persons and persons of African descent,” barring Asians - who were coming to california in large numbers - from U.S. citizenship.
Necessary and proper clause
The final paragraph of Article I, section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the enumerated powers. Sometimes called the “elastic clause” because of the flexibility that it provides to Congress. (Ch. 3)
Network
An association of broadcast stations (radio or television) that share programming through a financial arrangement
New Democrat
A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a less liberal, centrist Democrat.
New federalism
Political theory first espoused by Richard Nixon and carried out by Ronald Reagan. New federalism advocates the downsizing of the federal government and the devolution of power to the states.
New Jersey Plan
Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states.
New world order
President Bush’s vision for world peace centering around the United States taking the lead to ensure that aggression be dealt with by a mutual agreement of the United Nations, NATO, and other countries acting in concert.
news media
media that emphasizes the news
Nineteenth Amendment (1920)
Granted voting rights to women.
nolo contendere
(NOH-loh kuhn-TEN-duh-ree, kuhn-TEN-duh-ray) A plea that can be entered in a criminal or civil case, by which an accused person neither admits guilt nor proclaims innocence of a charge. Nolo contendere is Latin for “I do not wish to contend.â€
nomination
Endorsement to run for office by a political party.
Nomination Campaign
That part of a political campaign aimed at winning a primary election
Non-departmental cabinet level poistions.
Vice President, Chief of Staff, Deputy Chief of Staff, Administrator of the EPA, Director of the OMB, Director of the National Drug control Policy, USTR, Director fo the CIA, Ambassador to the UN, Under Secretary of Homeland Security, Emergency Preparedness, White House Counsel, National Security Advisor, Director of National Intelligence
nonpartisan election
a local or judicial election in which cnadidates are not selected or endorsed by political parties and party affiliation is not listed on ballots
Nonpartisan Primary
A primary used to select candidates regardless of party affiliation
Nonpreferential primary
Where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the winning primary candidate.
Nonrenewable resources
Those natural resources such as oil, which based on consumption, are limited.
Nonviolent civil disobedience
A philosophy of opposing a law one considers unjust by peacefully violating it and allowing oneself to be punished as a result. (Ch. 19)
Norm
A standard of right or proper conduct that helps determine the range of acceptable social behavior and policy options. (Ch. 5)
Norris-La Guardia Act (1932)
Act that prohibited employers from punishing workers who joined unions and gave labor the right to form union.
North American Free Trade Agreement
An agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico to establish free trade. It took effect in 1994 and is designed to eliminate trade barriers between the three nations by 2009.
‡ Many American labor unions oppose NAFTA on the grounds that it takes away jobs from American workers as manufacturers relocate in Mexico to take advantage of cheaper labor. Others argue that free trade creates more jobs in the United States than it destroys.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
A major achievement of the government under the AOC. It set specific regulations concerning the conditions under which a territory could apply for statehood. It also contained a bill of rights guaranteeing trial by jury, freedom of religion, and freedom from excessive punishment. It abolished slavlery in the Northwest territories (northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River, up to the Canadian border).
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty of 1968
Agreement that stopped and monitored the spread of nuclear weapons to countries who did not have the bomb.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
An agency of the United States government responsible for licensing and regulating nuclear power plants. Created in 1974, along with the Energy Research and Development Administration, it replaced the Atomic Energy Commission.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963
Agreement that banned atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
Nullification
A theory first advanced by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson that the states had the right to “nullify” (that is, declare null and void) a federal law that, in the states’ opinion, violated the Constitution. The theory was revived by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina in opposition to federal efforts to restrict slavery. The North’s victory in the Civil War determined once and for all that the federal Union is indissoluble and that states cannot declare acts of Congress unconstitutional, a view later confirmed by the Supreme Court. (Ch. 3)
Oak Ridge
A city in Tennessee, where uranium for the atomic bomb was produced during World War II. Since that time, the government has maintained a variety of nuclear research facilities in Oak Ridge. (See also Manhattan Project.)
objective good faith
Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that police believed they were acting within the limits of their search warrant.
Off the Record
Term applied to information gathered from a news story that cannot be used at all
office block ballot
ballot on which all candidates are listed under the office for which they are running, making split ticket voting easier
Office of Budget and Management
executive branch office responsible for drawing up the president’s proposals for the federal budget
Office of Economic Opportunity
A federal agency, founded in the 1960s as part of the War on Poverty conducted by President Lyndon Johnson. The OEO distributed federal money to a variety of local programs designed to promote educational opportunities and job training among the poor and to provide legal services for the poor. The OEO was abolished in the middle 1970s, and its programs have been curtailed or scattered among other federal agencies, particularly the Department of Health and Human Services.
Office of National Drug Control Policy?
The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), a component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act. Its stated goal is to establish policies, priorities, and objectives to eradicate illicit drug use, manufacturing, and trafficking, drug-related crime and violence, and drug-related health consequences in the United States.
Office-bloc ballot
A ballot listing all candidates for a given office under the name of that office; also called a “Massachusetts” ballot. See also Party-column ballot (Ch. 8)
Offsets
An environmental rule that a company in an area with polluted air can offset its own pollution by reducing pollution from another source in the area. For instance, an older company that can’t afford to pay for new antipollution technologies may buy pollution credits from a newer company that has reduced its source of pollution below the levels required by law. (Ch. 21)
oligarchy
Form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of individuals.
omnibus bill?
An omnibus spending bill is a bill that sets the budget of many departments of the United States government at once. It is one possible outcome of the budget process in the U.S. Every year, Congress must pass bills that appropriate money for all discretionary government spending. Generally, one bill is passed for each sub-committee of the U.S. House Committee on Appropriations. Ordinarily, each bill is passed separately — one bill for Defense, one for Homeland Security, and so on. appropriations bills into one omnibus spending bill. Some of the reasons that Congress might not complete all the separate bills include partisan disagreement, disagreement amongst members of the same political party, and too much work on other bills. When Congress does not or cannot produce separate bills in a timely fashion (by the beginning of the fiscal year on October 1), it will roll many of the separate. Often times, omnibus spending bills are criticized for being full of pork (unnecessary/wasteful spending that pleases constituents). The bills regularly stretch to more than 1,000 pages long, and often have not even been read in full by the people voting for them. Nevertheless, they have grown more common in recent years. The most recent one is for fiscal year 2005.
On background
A term for when sources are not specifically named in a news story
on the Hill
A phrase referring to Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C., where Congress meets: “They’re debating that nuclear waste issue on the Hill today.â€
On the record
Term applied to information gathered for a news story that can be cited
One-Partyism
A political system in which one party dominates and wins virtually all contests
open primary
A type of direct primary open to voters regardless of their party affiliation. Voters need not publicly declare their party affiliation but must vote for candidates of only one party. The opposite is a closed primary, in which only registered members of a party may vote.
Open rule
An order from the House Rules Committee that permits a bill to be amended on the legislative floor. See also Closed rule; Restrictive rule (Ch. 11)
open shop
a company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment
open, closed, and restricted rules in the House?
Bills favorably reported by committee are placed on the House or Senate calendar, which, in spite of its name, is simply a listing without chronological order. Many bills die on the calendar because they are never considered on the floor. In the House, the Rules Committee acts as a “traffic cop.” Its rules are instructions which determine if and when a bill will be considered on the floor, and how. A closed rule forbids amendments and speeds consideration. A restricted rule allows only certain amendments to be considered. An open rule, of course, permits unlimited amendments. The Senate has no Rules Committee but instead relies on a unanimous consent agreement negotiated between the majority and minority leaders to govern consideration of a bill. The Senate also differs in permitting filibusters, which allow senators to delay or even kill bills by unlimited debate, though unlimited debate may be prevented if 60 senators vote for cloture. Cloture was once rare but is becoming more common. The Senate also allows unlimited amendments, which encourages riders: amendments unrelated to the substance of a bill, slipping in “back-door” legislation.
Opinion of the Court
A Supreme Court opinion written by one or more justices in the majority to explain the decision in a case. See also Concurring opinion; Dissenting opinion (Ch. 14)
Oral argument
Legal argument made by each attorney in proceedings before the court in an attempt to persuade the court to decide the issue in their client’s favor.
Ordinance
A law passed and enforced by a city government. (Ch. 3)
Organizational Campaign
That part of a political campaign involved in fund-raising, literature distribution, and all other activities not directly involving the candidate.
Organizational Party
The workers and activists who staff the party’s formal organization
original jurisdiction
term used to describe a court’s power to initially try a case. Courts in which cases are first heard are those with originial jurisdiction in the case, appellate courts hear challenges to earlier court decisions
Orthodox
People who believe that moral rules are derived from the commands of God or the laws of nature; these commands and laws are relatively clear, unchanging, and independent of individual moral preferences. They are likely to believe that traditional morality is more important than individual liberty and should be enforced by government and communal norms. See also Progressive (Ch. 4)
OSHA created?
The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was created by Congress under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, signed by President Richard M. Nixon,on December 29, 1970. Its mission is to prevent work-related injuries, illnesses, and deaths by issuing and enforcing rules (called standards) for workplace safety and health. This same act also created the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a research agency whose purpose is to determine the major types of hazards in the workplace and ways of controlling them. OSHA’s statutory authority extends to most nongovernmental workplaces where there are employees. State and local government workers are excluded from Federal coverage, however, states operating their own state workplace safety and health programs under plans approved by the U.S. Department of Labor cover most private sector workers and are also required to extend their coverage to public sector (state and local government) workers in the state.
our federalism
created by Ronald Reagan, Sandra Day O’Connor, Antonin Scalia, William Rehnquist. presumes power of the fed gov is limited in favor of the broad powers reserved to the states
Oval Office
An oval-shaped room in the White House that serves as the official office of the president of the United States. Since the presidency of Richard Nixon, the term has been used to refer to the president himself: “The order came directly from the Oval Office.â€
override
The constitutional power of congress to supersede a president’s veto by a two-thirds majority in both houses.
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)?
The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) is an agency of the U.S. government established in 1971 that helps U.S. businesses invest overseas and promotes economic development in new and emerging markets. OPIC operations cost nothing to American taxpayers because it charges market-based fees for its products and services. The agency has earned a profit in each year of operations — $175 million in 2002 — and built its reserves to more than $4 billion.
Oversight
Congressional review of the activities of an agency, department, or office
Palko Vs. Connecticut
Provided test for which parts of the bill of rights should be federalized
pardon
Cancellation of criminal punishment. Presidents and governors have the power to grant pardons to those awaiting trial and to those convicted of crimes.
Parliament
Legislative body of Great Britain. It is divided into 2 houses, although one house, the House of Lords, has little power. The other house is the democratically-elected House of Commons.
parliamentary system
a system of gov in which the legislature selects the prime minister of president
Partnership for peace
President Clinton announced in 1993 a policy that allowed for the gradual admission into NATO of new member nations from the former Warsaw Pact and gave the designation of associate status in NATO to Russia.
party caucus
a meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy, republicans call them conferences
party column ballot
type of ballot that encourages party line voting by listing all of a party’s candidates in a column under the party name
party convention
a meeting of party delegates to vote on matters of policy and in some cases to select party candidates for public office
Party dealignment
A shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent ideological view of party identification.
Party eras
A time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have been four major party eras in American history - the era of good feeling, the Republican era following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.
Party Identification
A citizen’s personal affinity for a political party, usually expressed by his or her tendency to vote for the candidates of that party
Party in the electorate
The voters who consider themselves allied or associated with the party
Party machine
The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples.
Party organization
Formal structure of a political party on the national, state, and local levels.
Party platforms
Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party.
Party polarization
A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators oppose a majority of Republican legislators. (Ch. 11)
Party Realignment
A shifting of party coalition groupings in the electorate that remains in place for several elections
party registration
the act of declaring party affiliation; required by some states when one registers to vote
Party regulars
Enrolled party members who are usually active in the organization of a political party and support party positions and nominated candidates.
Party-column ballot
A ballot listing all candidates of a given party together under the name of that party; also called an “Indiana” ballot. See also Office-bloc ballot (Ch. 8)
patronage
(PAY-truh-nij, PAT-ruh-nij) The power of a government official or leader to make appointments and offer favors. Once in office, a politician can use patronage to build a loyal following. Though practiced at all levels of government, patronage is most often associated with the machine politics of big cities. (See spoils system.)
Peace Corps
An agency of the United States government that sends American volunteers to developing nations to help improve living standards and provide training. Created by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, under the auspices of the Department of State, the Peace Corps provides an opportunity to share American wealth, technology, and expertise. During the cold war it also served as a means for spreading American influence and values in the hope of preventing developing nations from allying themselves with the Soviet Union.
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act?
Established the United States Civil Service Commission, which placed most federal employees on the merit system and marked the end of the so-called “spoils system.” Drafted during the Chester A. Arthur administration, the Pendleton Act served as a response to President James Garfield’s assassination by Charles J. Guiteau (a “disappointed office seeker”). The Act was passed into law on January 16, 1883.
Pentagon
An immense five-sided building in Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C., that serves as headquarters for the Department of Defense.
‡ The term is often used to refer to the Department of Defense or the military: “The Pentagon agreed today to submit the modified weapons plan to the president.â€
‡ The Pentagon was severely damaged by the September 11 attacks.
Per curiam opinion
A brief, unsigned opinion issued by the Supreme Court to explain its ruling. See also Opinion of the Court (Ch. 14)
Perks
A short form of perquisites, meaning “fringe benefits of office.” Among the perks of political office for high-ranking officials are limousines, expense accounts, free air travel, fancy offices, and staff assistants. (Ch. 12)
permissive federalism
sharing of power and authority between the national and state gov, the states portion is upon the permission of the national government
Personal Campaign
That part of a political campaign concerned with presenting the candidate’s public image
Personal following
The political support provided to a candidate on the basis of personal popularity and networks. (Ch. 7)
Personal Liberty
Freedom to engage in a variety of practices, free from gov’t discrimination
PFIAB?
Founded in 1956 by President Eisenhower, the President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB) is part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States. According to its self-description, it “…provides advice to the President concerning the quality and adequacy of intelligence collection, of analysis and estimates, of counterintelligence, and of other intelligence activities. The PFIAB, through its Intelligence Oversight Board, also advises the President on the legality of foreign intelligence activities.
Photo ops
Photo opportunities.
Plaintiff
The party that initiates a lawsuit to obtain a remedy for an injury to his or her rights. (Ch. 14)
Plank
Any of the principles contained in a political party’s platform.
Planned Parenthood Vs. Casey
states can regulate abortion but not with regulations that impose a burden to the woman; more leeway like the 24 hour waiting period and parent concent to minors
platform
statement of purpose and policy objectives drafted and approved by political parties at their national conventions, they rarely exert much influence on day-to-day politics
plea bargain
An agreement that permits a defendant to plead guilty to a lesser charge instead of pleading not guilty to a more serious one. Plea bargaining is usually undertaken by a prosecutor to obtain important information from a defendant or to avoid a long and costly trial
Pledge of Allegiance
Also called the “Pledge to the Flag.†The American patriotic vow, which is often recited at formal government ceremonies, including Independence Day ceremonies for new citizens: “I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.â€
‡ The phrase under God, added in 1954 (more than sixty years after the pledge was originally published), has inspired heated debate over the separation of church and state.
Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896)
Supreme Court ruling that “separate but equal” facilities for the different races were not unconstitutional. This ruling opened the door to 75 years of state-sanctioned segregation in the South.
Pluralism
A group theory that involves different groups all vying for control of the policy agenda. No single group emerges, forcing the groups to compromise.
Plurality
Winning number of votes received in a race containing more than two candidates but which is not more than half of the total votes cast.
Plurality system
An electoral system, used in almost all American elections, in which the winner is the person who gets the most votes, even if he or she does not receive a majority of the votes. (Ch. 7)
pocket veto
If the president fails to approve a bill passed during the last 10 days of a Congressional session, the bill does not become a law.
Police power
The power of a state to promote health, safety, and morals. (Ch. 3)
Policy agenda
Agenda that results from the interaction of linkage institutions.
Policy entrepreneurs
Those in and out of government who find ways of pulling together a legislative majority on behalf of unorganized interests. See also Entrepreneurial politics (Ch. 15)
policy implementation
the process by which executive departments and agencies put legislation into practive, they are often allowed a degree of freedom to interpret legislation as they write guidelines to enact and enforce the law
political action committee
(PAC) Fundraising apparatus of interest groups; donations are regulated by federal law; contribute heavily to the reelection campaigns of representatives and senators sympathetic to the PAC’s political agenda.
Political agenda
A set of issues thought by the public or those in power to merit action by the government. (Ch. 15)
Political consultant
Person who specializes in running a political campaign. James Carville and Karl Rove are examples of political consultants.
Political culture
A broadly shared way of thinking about political and economic life that reflects fundamental assumptions about how government should operate. It is distinct from political ideology, which refers to a more or less consistent set of views about the policies government ought to follow. Up to a point people sharing a common political culture can disagree about ideology. See also Political ideology (Ch. 4)
Political editorializing rule
A rule of the Federal Communica-tions Commission that if a broadcaster endorses a candidate, the opposing candidate has a right to reply. (Ch. 10)
Political efficacy
A citizen’s belief that he or she can understand and influence political affairs. This sense is divided into two parts–internal efficacy (confidence in a citizen’s own abilities to understand and take part in political affairs) and external efficacy (a belief that the system will respond to a citizen’s demands). (Ch. 4)
Political Ideology
Set of coherent values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of gov’t
Political machine
A party organization that recruits its members by dispensing patronage–tangible incentives such as money, political jobs, or an opportunity to get favors from government–and that is characterized by a high degree of leadership control over member activity. (Ch. 7)
Political participation
The different ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools that have influenced our elected officials.
Political party
A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government.
political party
an organization that seeks political power by electing people to office so that is positions and philosophy become public policy
political predisposition
a characteristic of individuals that is predictive of political behavior
Political question
An issue that the Supreme Court refuses to consider because it believes the Constitution has left it entirely to another branch to decide. Its view of such issues may change over time, however. For example, until the 1960s the Court refused to hear cases about the size of congressional districts, no matter how unequal their populations. In 1962, however, it decided that it was authorized to review the constitutional implications of this issue. (Ch. 14)
Political Socialization
The process through which an individual acquires particular political orientations; the learning process by which people acquire their political beliefs and values.
Political subculture
Fundamental assumptions about how the political process should operate that distinguish citizens by region, religion, or other characteristics. (Ch. 4)
Politico
Role played by elected representatives who act as trustees or delegates, depending on the issue
Politics
Who gets what, when, how, and why.
Poll
A survey of public opinion. See also Random sample (Ch. 5)
Poll tax
A requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote. It was adopted by many states to prevent former slaves (most of whom were poor) from voting. It is now unconstitutional. See also Grandfather clause; Literacy test (Ch. 6)
Pollution allowances (or banks)
A reduction in pollution below that required by law that can be used to cover a future plant expansion or sold to another company whose pollution emissions are above the legal requirements. (Ch. 21)
popular consent
the idea that a just gov must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs
popular sovereignty
a belief that ultimate power resides in the people
populism
The belief that greater popular participation in government and business is necessary to protect individuals from exploitation by inflexible bureaucracy and financial conglomerates. “Power to the people†is a famous populist slogan.
Populists
People who hold liberal views on economic matters and conservative ones on social matters. They prefer a strong government that will reduce economic inequality, regulate businesses, and impose stricter social and criminal sanctions. The name and views have their origins in an agriculturally based social movement and party of the 1880s and 1890s that sought to curb the power of influential economic interests. (Ch. 5)
pork
Budget items proposed by legislators to benefit constituents in their home state or district. Such expenditures are sometimes unnecessary but are passed anyway because they are politically beneficial.
Position issue
An issue dividing the electorate on which rival parties adopt different policy positions to attract voters. See also Valence issue (Ch. 8)
postmaster general
The head of the United States Postal Service. Until 1970, the postmaster general was head of the federal Post Office Department and a member of the president’s cabinet. In 1970, the Postal Service was set up as an independent agency in place of the Post Office Department. The Postal Service is operated like a private corporation, although postal workers receive the benefits of federal employees.
Poverty line
References the point at which an individual is considered living in what has been called a “culture of poverty.”
Power
The ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person’s intentions. (Ch. 1)
power elite
A term used by the American sociologist (see sociology) C. Wright Mills to describe a relatively small, loosely knit group of people who tend to dominate American policymaking. This group includes bureaucratic, corporate, intellectual, military, and government elites who control the principal institutions in the United States and whose opinions and actions influence the decisions of the policymakers.
power of the purse
The influence that legislatures have over public policy because of their power to vote money for public purposes. The United States Congress must authorize the president’s budget requests to fund agencies and programs of the executive branch. (See appropriation.)
powers prohibited to states
making treaties with foreign govs, authorising private persons to prey on the shipping and commerce of other nations, coining money/issuing bills of credit/making anything but gold and silver coin legal tender in payment of debts, taxing imports or exports, taxing foreign ships, keeping troops or ships in time of peace (except the state militia, now called the National Guard), engaging in war (unless invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit delay)
Preamble
The introduction to the Constitution, outlining the goals of the document.
Precedent
prior judicial decision that serves as a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature
preemption
the right of a federal law or regulation takes precedence over enforcement of a state or local law or regulation
president pro tempore
Individual chosen to preside over the Senate whenever the vice president is unavailable to do so. Chosen by the senate from among its members.
Presidential primary
Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party’s national convention.
presidential ticket
the joint listing of the presidential and vice presidential candidates on the same ballot as required by the 12th amendment
Presidentialist
One who believes that Article II’s grant of executive power is a broad grant of authority allowing a president wide discretionary powers
Press briefing
A relatively restricted session between a press secretary or aide and the press
Press Conference
An unrestricted session between an elected official and the press
press release
A document offering an official comment or position
Press secretary
Key White House staff position; the press secretary meets with the White House press corps.
pressure group
An organized group that tries to influence the government to adopt certain policies or measures. Also called an interest group. (See lobby.)
Price supports
The government’s price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down.
primaries
State elections of delegates to the nominating convention that chooses a major party’s presidential candidate. In some states, delegates are elected by popular vote; in other states, party caucuses or miniconventions choose delegates.
‡ Primaries occur at different times during the presidential election year, a situation that drags out the process by which parties nominate candidates but allows wide public exposure to candidates and issues.
Primary election
An election prior to the general election in which voters select the candidates who will run on each party’s ticket. Before presidential elections, a presidential primary is held to select delegates to the presidential nominating conventions of the major parties. See also Closed primary; Open primary (Ch. 8)
Print Press
The traditional form of mass media, comprising newspapers, magazines, and journals
Prior restraint
The traditional view of the press’s free speech rights as expressed by William Blackstone, the great English jurist. According to this view the press is guaranteed freedom from censorship–that is, rules telling it in advance what it can publish. After publication, however, the government can punish the press for material that is judged libelous or obscene. (Ch. 18)
privacy, right of
The doctrine, advanced by the Supreme Court most notably in Roe versus Wade, that the Constitution implicitly guarantees protection against activities that invade citizens’ privacy. The Constitution does not explicitly mention a right of privacy, but the First Amendment’s protection of free speech, the Fourth Amendment’s guarantee against “unreasonable searches and seizures,†the Ninth Amendment’s reference to “other†rights, the Court has ruled, imply a right of privacy. This doctrine exemplifies broad construction. (See Griswold versus Connecticut.)
Private bill
A legislative bill that deals only with specific, private, personal, or local matters rather than with general legislative affairs. The main kinds include immigration and naturalization bills (Ch. referring to particular individuals) and personal-claim bills. See also Public bill (Ch. 11)
Privileges and immunities
The guarantees that the rights of a citizen in one state will be respected by other states. Also a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from abuses by a state.
probate court
(PROH-bayt) A court that has jurisdiction over wills, estates, and guardianship of children.
Procedural due process
A series of steps that are established by the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments that protect the rights of the accused at every step of the investigation.
Process regulation
Rules regulating manufacturing or industrial processes, usually aimed at improving consumer or worker safety and reducing environmental damage. (Ch. 15)
Proclamation of 1763
Prohibited colonists from settling west of the rivers running through the Appalachians. It was issued in response to numerous Native American attacks on the settlers. This angered colonial settlers, who regarded it as unwarranted British interference in colonial affairs. The ban was repealed in 1766.
Progressive
A person who believes that moral rules are derived in part from an individual’s beliefs and the circumstances of modern life. Progressives are likely to favor government tolerance and protection of individual choice. (Ch. 4)
progressive income tax
This increases the tax rates for people with higher incomes. Those citizens at poverty level, for example, might pay few or no taxes. Middle-class citizens might be taxed at a 15% rate, while the wealthy are taxed at two or three times that rate. The goal of this is to allow those with greater need to keep more or what they earn while taking from those who need it least.
project grants
Congress appropriated funds of a certain sum, allocated to gov units based on applications
Proportional Representation
A voting system that apportions legislative seats according to the percentage of the vote won by a particular political party
Prospective Judgment
A voter’s evaluation of a candidate based on what he or she pledges to do about an issue if elected
Prospective voting
Voting for a candidate because one favors his or her ideas for addressing issues after the election. (Ch. Prospective means “forward-looking.”) See also Retrospective voting (Ch. 8)
Public bill
A legislative bill that deals with matters of general concern. A bill involving defense expenditures is a public bill; a bill pertaining to an individual’s becoming a naturalized citizen is not. See also Private bill (Ch. 11)
public defender
An attorney who is appointed and paid by a court to defend poor persons who cannot afford a lawyer.
public opinion
the distribution of individual preferences for or evaluations of a given issue, candidate, or institution within a specific population
Public opinion polls
Scientific surveys aimed at gauging public preference of candidates and issues.
Public policy
The final action(s) taken by government in promotional, regulatory, or distributive form.
public works
Public facilities and improvements financed by the government for the public good. Public works include hospitals, bridges, highways, and dams. These projects may be funded by local, state, or federal appropriations. (See also pork-barrel legislation.)
Public-interest lobby
A political organization the stated goals of which will principally benefit nonmembers. (Ch. 9)
purpose of federal grants
supply state and local govs with revenue, to establish minimum national standards for things such as highways and clean air, to equalize resources among the states by taking money from people with high incomes through federal taxes and spending it through grants in states where the poor live, to attack national problems yet minimize the growth of federal agencies
Purposive incentive
The benefit that comes from serving a cause or principle from which one does not personally benefit. (Ch. 9)
Push Polls
“Polls” taken for the purpose of providing information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate
Pyramid structure
A method of organizing a president’s staff in which most presidential assistants report through a hierarchy to the president’s chief of staff. (Ch. 12)
