FSOT Master 6 Flashcards
(500 cards)
1
Q
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
A
An agency of the United States government, charged with directing civilian programs in aeronautics research and space exploration. NASA maintains several facilities, most notably the Johnson Space Center in Houston (which selects space crew personnel and is responsible for ground direction of space flights), and the launching pads at Cape Canaveral in Florida.
2
Q
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
A
An organization that promotes the rights and welfare of black people. The NAACP is the oldest civil rights organization in the United States, founded in 1909. Among the NAACP’s achievements was a lawsuit that resulted in the Supreme Court’s landmark decision in Brown versus Board of Education, in 1954, which declared the segregation of public schools unconstitutional. (See also W. E. B. DuBois and separate but equal.)
3
Q
National chairman
A
A paid, full-time manager of a party’s day-to-day work who is elected by the national committee. (Ch. 7)
4
Q
National committee
A
A committee of delegates from each state and territory that runs party affairs between national conventions. (Ch. 7)
5
Q
National convention
A
A meeting of party delegates elected in state primaries, caucuses, or conventions that is held every four years. Its primary purpose is to nominate presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to ratify a campaign platform. (Ch. 7)
6
Q
National Economic Council?
A
The National Economic Council (NEC) is a United States government agency in the Executive Office of the President. Created by President Bill Clinton in 1993 by Executive Order, its functions are to coordinate policy-making for domestic and international economic issues, coordinate economic policy advice for the President, ensure that policy decisions and programs are consistent with the President’s economic goals, and monitor implementation of the President’s economic policy agenda. The Director of the NEC is also Assistant to the President for Economic Policy.
7
Q
National Guard
A
The volunteer military forces of each state, which the governor of a state can summon in times of civil disorder or natural disaster. Through congressional and presidential order, the National Guard can be called into service in the regular United States army.
8
Q
National Labor Relations Act (or Wagner Act)?
A
A 1935 United States federal law that protects the rights of most workers in the private sector to organize labor unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take part in strikes and other forms of concerted activity in support of their demands. The Act does not, on the other hand, cover those workers who are covered by the Railway Labor Act, agricultural employees, domestic employees, supervisors, independent contractors and some close relatives of individual employers.
9
Q
National Labor Relations Board
A
An agency of the United States government, charged with mediating disputes between labor and management, and responsible for preventing unfair labor practices, such as the harassment of labor unions by business corporations. The NLRB attempts to maintain a position of neutrality, favoring neither labor nor management.
10
Q
National nominating conventions
A
The governing authority of the political party. They give direction to the national party chairperson, the spokesperson of the party, and the person who heads the national committee, the governing body of the party. They are also the forums where presidential candidates are given the official nod by their parties.
11
Q
National Organization for Women
A
A major feminist organization, founded in the middle 1960s, when the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission failed to enforce a clause in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination on the basis of gender. One of its founders was Betty Friedan. NOW has worked to promote occupational opportunities for women and has supported legislative proposals that would guarantee women equality with men.
12
Q
national party convention
A
a antioanl meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every fours years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules
13
Q
National Party Platform
A
A statement of the general and specific philosophy and policy goals of a political party, usually promulgated at the national convention
14
Q
National Rifle Association
A
An organization that acts as a powerful lobby against governmental restrictions on the private ownership of guns. NRA supporters argue that “guns don’t kill people; people kill people.†They often cite the Second Amendment to the Constitution, which states: “A well-regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.â€
15
Q
National Security Council
A
Chaired by the president, it is the lead advisory board in the area of national and international security. The other members of the council include the vice president, secretaries of state and defense, director of the Central Intelligence Agency, and chair of the joint chiefs of staff.
16
Q
national security council
A
Presidential advisory board established in 1947 to consult with the president on matters of defense and foreign policy.
17
Q
national supremacy
A
constitutional doctrine that whenever conflict occurs between the constitutionally authorized actions of the national gov and those of a state or local gov, the actions of the fed gov prevail
18
Q
national supremacy article
A
Article 6; “This Constiution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made…under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every States shall e bound thereby; any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding”
19
Q
Nationalization of the Bill of Rights
A
A judicial doctrine of the Fourteenth Amendment that applied the Bill of Rights to the states in matters such as segregation.
20
Q
natural law
A
God’s or nature’s law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law
21
Q
Natural rights
A
Part of Locke’s philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and property.
22
Q
naturalization
A
The process by which a foreign citizen becomes a citizen of a new country. Millions of immigrants to the United States have become American citizens. Requirements for naturalization in the United States include residency for several years, ability to communicate in English, demonstrated knowledge of American history and government, and a dedication to American values that includes no membership in subversive organizations, such as the Communist party.
23
Q
Naturalization Act of 1870?
A
This Naturalization Act limited American citizenship to “white persons and persons of African descent,” barring Asians - who were coming to california in large numbers - from U.S. citizenship.
24
Q
Necessary and proper clause
A
The final paragraph of Article I, section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the enumerated powers. Sometimes called the “elastic clause” because of the flexibility that it provides to Congress. (Ch. 3)
25
Network
An association of broadcast stations (radio or television) that share programming through a financial arrangement
26
New Democrat
A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a less liberal, centrist Democrat.
27
New federalism
Political theory first espoused by Richard Nixon and carried out by Ronald Reagan. New federalism advocates the downsizing of the federal government and the devolution of power to the states.
28
New Jersey Plan
Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states.
29
New world order
President Bush's vision for world peace centering around the United States taking the lead to ensure that aggression be dealt with by a mutual agreement of the United Nations, NATO, and other countries acting in concert.
30
news media
media that emphasizes the news
31
Nineteenth Amendment (1920)
Granted voting rights to women.
32
nolo contendere
(NOH-loh kuhn-TEN-duh-ree, kuhn-TEN-duh-ray) A plea that can be entered in a criminal or civil case, by which an accused person neither admits guilt nor proclaims innocence of a charge. Nolo contendere is Latin for “I do not wish to contend.â€
33
nomination
Endorsement to run for office by a political party.
34
Nomination Campaign
That part of a political campaign aimed at winning a primary election
35
Non-departmental cabinet level poistions.
Vice President, Chief of Staff, Deputy Chief of Staff, Administrator of the EPA, Director of the OMB, Director of the National Drug control Policy, USTR, Director fo the CIA, Ambassador to the UN, Under Secretary of Homeland Security, Emergency Preparedness, White House Counsel, National Security Advisor, Director of National Intelligence
36
nonpartisan election
a local or judicial election in which cnadidates are not selected or endorsed by political parties and party affiliation is not listed on ballots
37
Nonpartisan Primary
A primary used to select candidates regardless of party affiliation
38
Nonpreferential primary
Where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the winning primary candidate.
39
Nonrenewable resources
Those natural resources such as oil, which based on consumption, are limited.
40
Nonviolent civil disobedience
A philosophy of opposing a law one considers unjust by peacefully violating it and allowing oneself to be punished as a result. (Ch. 19)
41
Norm
A standard of right or proper conduct that helps determine the range of acceptable social behavior and policy options. (Ch. 5)
42
Norris-La Guardia Act (1932)
Act that prohibited employers from punishing workers who joined unions and gave labor the right to form union.
43
North American Free Trade Agreement
An agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico to establish free trade. It took effect in 1994 and is designed to eliminate trade barriers between the three nations by 2009.
‡ Many American labor unions oppose NAFTA on the grounds that it takes away jobs from American workers as manufacturers relocate in Mexico to take advantage of cheaper labor. Others argue that free trade creates more jobs in the United States than it destroys.
44
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
A major achievement of the government under the AOC. It set specific regulations concerning the conditions under which a territory could apply for statehood. It also contained a bill of rights guaranteeing trial by jury, freedom of religion, and freedom from excessive punishment. It abolished slavlery in the Northwest territories (northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River, up to the Canadian border).
45
Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty of 1968
Agreement that stopped and monitored the spread of nuclear weapons to countries who did not have the bomb.
46
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
An agency of the United States government responsible for licensing and regulating nuclear power plants. Created in 1974, along with the Energy Research and Development Administration, it replaced the Atomic Energy Commission.
47
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963
Agreement that banned atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.
48
Nullification
A theory first advanced by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson that the states had the right to "nullify" (that is, declare null and void) a federal law that, in the states' opinion, violated the Constitution. The theory was revived by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina in opposition to federal efforts to restrict slavery. The North's victory in the Civil War determined once and for all that the federal Union is indissoluble and that states cannot declare acts of Congress unconstitutional, a view later confirmed by the Supreme Court. (Ch. 3)
49
Oak Ridge
A city in Tennessee, where uranium for the atomic bomb was produced during World War II. Since that time, the government has maintained a variety of nuclear research facilities in Oak Ridge. (See also Manhattan Project.)
50
objective good faith
Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that police believed they were acting within the limits of their search warrant.
51
Off the Record
Term applied to information gathered from a news story that cannot be used at all
52
office block ballot
ballot on which all candidates are listed under the office for which they are running, making split ticket voting easier
53
Office of Budget and Management
executive branch office responsible for drawing up the president's proposals for the federal budget
54
Office of Economic Opportunity
A federal agency, founded in the 1960s as part of the War on Poverty conducted by President Lyndon Johnson. The OEO distributed federal money to a variety of local programs designed to promote educational opportunities and job training among the poor and to provide legal services for the poor. The OEO was abolished in the middle 1970s, and its programs have been curtailed or scattered among other federal agencies, particularly the Department of Health and Human Services.
55
Office of National Drug Control Policy?
The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), a component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 by the Anti-Drug Abuse Act. Its stated goal is to establish policies, priorities, and objectives to eradicate illicit drug use, manufacturing, and trafficking, drug-related crime and violence, and drug-related health consequences in the United States.
56
Office-bloc ballot
A ballot listing all candidates for a given office under the name of that office; also called a "Massachusetts" ballot. See also Party-column ballot (Ch. 8)
57
Offsets
An environmental rule that a company in an area with polluted air can offset its own pollution by reducing pollution from another source in the area. For instance, an older company that can't afford to pay for new antipollution technologies may buy pollution credits from a newer company that has reduced its source of pollution below the levels required by law. (Ch. 21)
58
oligarchy
Form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of individuals.
59
omnibus bill?
An omnibus spending bill is a bill that sets the budget of many departments of the United States government at once. It is one possible outcome of the budget process in the U.S. Every year, Congress must pass bills that appropriate money for all discretionary government spending. Generally, one bill is passed for each sub-committee of the U.S. House Committee on Appropriations. Ordinarily, each bill is passed separately — one bill for Defense, one for Homeland Security, and so on. appropriations bills into one omnibus spending bill. Some of the reasons that Congress might not complete all the separate bills include partisan disagreement, disagreement amongst members of the same political party, and too much work on other bills. When Congress does not or cannot produce separate bills in a timely fashion (by the beginning of the fiscal year on October 1), it will roll many of the separate. Often times, omnibus spending bills are criticized for being full of pork (unnecessary/wasteful spending that pleases constituents). The bills regularly stretch to more than 1,000 pages long, and often have not even been read in full by the people voting for them. Nevertheless, they have grown more common in recent years. The most recent one is for fiscal year 2005.
60
On background
A term for when sources are not specifically named in a news story
61
on the Hill
A phrase referring to Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C., where Congress meets: “They’re debating that nuclear waste issue on the Hill today.â€
62
On the record
Term applied to information gathered for a news story that can be cited
63
One-Partyism
A political system in which one party dominates and wins virtually all contests
64
open primary
A type of direct primary open to voters regardless of their party affiliation. Voters need not publicly declare their party affiliation but must vote for candidates of only one party. The opposite is a closed primary, in which only registered members of a party may vote.
65
Open rule
An order from the House Rules Committee that permits a bill to be amended on the legislative floor. See also Closed rule; Restrictive rule (Ch. 11)
66
open shop
a company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment
67
open, closed, and restricted rules in the House?
Bills favorably reported by committee are placed on the House or Senate calendar, which, in spite of its name, is simply a listing without chronological order. Many bills die on the calendar because they are never considered on the floor. In the House, the Rules Committee acts as a "traffic cop." Its rules are instructions which determine if and when a bill will be considered on the floor, and how. A closed rule forbids amendments and speeds consideration. A restricted rule allows only certain amendments to be considered. An open rule, of course, permits unlimited amendments. The Senate has no Rules Committee but instead relies on a unanimous consent agreement negotiated between the majority and minority leaders to govern consideration of a bill. The Senate also differs in permitting filibusters, which allow senators to delay or even kill bills by unlimited debate, though unlimited debate may be prevented if 60 senators vote for cloture. Cloture was once rare but is becoming more common. The Senate also allows unlimited amendments, which encourages riders: amendments unrelated to the substance of a bill, slipping in "back-door" legislation.
68
Opinion of the Court
A Supreme Court opinion written by one or more justices in the majority to explain the decision in a case. See also Concurring opinion; Dissenting opinion (Ch. 14)
69
Oral argument
Legal argument made by each attorney in proceedings before the court in an attempt to persuade the court to decide the issue in their client's favor.
70
Ordinance
A law passed and enforced by a city government. (Ch. 3)
71
Organizational Campaign
That part of a political campaign involved in fund-raising, literature distribution, and all other activities not directly involving the candidate.
72
Organizational Party
The workers and activists who staff the party's formal organization
73
original jurisdiction
term used to describe a court's power to initially try a case. Courts in which cases are first heard are those with originial jurisdiction in the case, appellate courts hear challenges to earlier court decisions
74
Orthodox
People who believe that moral rules are derived from the commands of God or the laws of nature; these commands and laws are relatively clear, unchanging, and independent of individual moral preferences. They are likely to believe that traditional morality is more important than individual liberty and should be enforced by government and communal norms. See also Progressive (Ch. 4)
75
OSHA created?
The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was created by Congress under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, signed by President Richard M. Nixon,on December 29, 1970. Its mission is to prevent work-related injuries, illnesses, and deaths by issuing and enforcing rules (called standards) for workplace safety and health. This same act also created the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a research agency whose purpose is to determine the major types of hazards in the workplace and ways of controlling them. OSHA's statutory authority extends to most nongovernmental workplaces where there are employees. State and local government workers are excluded from Federal coverage, however, states operating their own state workplace safety and health programs under plans approved by the U.S. Department of Labor cover most private sector workers and are also required to extend their coverage to public sector (state and local government) workers in the state.
76
our federalism
created by Ronald Reagan, Sandra Day O'Connor, Antonin Scalia, William Rehnquist. presumes power of the fed gov is limited in favor of the broad powers reserved to the states
77
Oval Office
An oval-shaped room in the White House that serves as the official office of the president of the United States. Since the presidency of Richard Nixon, the term has been used to refer to the president himself: “The order came directly from the Oval Office.â€
78
override
The constitutional power of congress to supersede a president's veto by a two-thirds majority in both houses.
79
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC)?
The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) is an agency of the U.S. government established in 1971 that helps U.S. businesses invest overseas and promotes economic development in new and emerging markets. OPIC operations cost nothing to American taxpayers because it charges market-based fees for its products and services. The agency has earned a profit in each year of operations — $175 million in 2002 — and built its reserves to more than $4 billion.
80
Oversight
Congressional review of the activities of an agency, department, or office
81
Palko Vs. Connecticut
Provided test for which parts of the bill of rights should be federalized
82
pardon
Cancellation of criminal punishment. Presidents and governors have the power to grant pardons to those awaiting trial and to those convicted of crimes.
83
Parliament
Legislative body of Great Britain. It is divided into 2 houses, although one house, the House of Lords, has little power. The other house is the democratically-elected House of Commons.
84
parliamentary system
a system of gov in which the legislature selects the prime minister of president
85
Partnership for peace
President Clinton announced in 1993 a policy that allowed for the gradual admission into NATO of new member nations from the former Warsaw Pact and gave the designation of associate status in NATO to Russia.
86
party caucus
a meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy, republicans call them conferences
87
party column ballot
type of ballot that encourages party line voting by listing all of a party's candidates in a column under the party name
88
party convention
a meeting of party delegates to vote on matters of policy and in some cases to select party candidates for public office
89
Party dealignment
A shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent ideological view of party identification.
90
Party eras
A time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have been four major party eras in American history - the era of good feeling, the Republican era following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.
91
Party Identification
A citizen's personal affinity for a political party, usually expressed by his or her tendency to vote for the candidates of that party
92
Party in the electorate
The voters who consider themselves allied or associated with the party
93
Party machine
The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples.
94
Party organization
Formal structure of a political party on the national, state, and local levels.
95
Party platforms
Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party.
96
Party polarization
A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators oppose a majority of Republican legislators. (Ch. 11)
97
Party Realignment
A shifting of party coalition groupings in the electorate that remains in place for several elections
98
party registration
the act of declaring party affiliation; required by some states when one registers to vote
99
Party regulars
Enrolled party members who are usually active in the organization of a political party and support party positions and nominated candidates.
100
Party-column ballot
A ballot listing all candidates of a given party together under the name of that party; also called an "Indiana" ballot. See also Office-bloc ballot (Ch. 8)
101
patronage
(PAY-truh-nij, PAT-ruh-nij) The power of a government official or leader to make appointments and offer favors. Once in office, a politician can use patronage to build a loyal following. Though practiced at all levels of government, patronage is most often associated with the machine politics of big cities. (See spoils system.)
102
Peace Corps
An agency of the United States government that sends American volunteers to developing nations to help improve living standards and provide training. Created by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, under the auspices of the Department of State, the Peace Corps provides an opportunity to share American wealth, technology, and expertise. During the cold war it also served as a means for spreading American influence and values in the hope of preventing developing nations from allying themselves with the Soviet Union.
103
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act?
Established the United States Civil Service Commission, which placed most federal employees on the merit system and marked the end of the so-called "spoils system." Drafted during the Chester A. Arthur administration, the Pendleton Act served as a response to President James Garfield's assassination by Charles J. Guiteau (a "disappointed office seeker"). The Act was passed into law on January 16, 1883.
104
Pentagon
An immense five-sided building in Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C., that serves as headquarters for the Department of Defense.
‡ The term is often used to refer to the Department of Defense or the military: “The Pentagon agreed today to submit the modified weapons plan to the president.â€
‡ The Pentagon was severely damaged by the September 11 attacks.
105
Per curiam opinion
A brief, unsigned opinion issued by the Supreme Court to explain its ruling. See also Opinion of the Court (Ch. 14)
106
Perks
A short form of perquisites, meaning "fringe benefits of office." Among the perks of political office for high-ranking officials are limousines, expense accounts, free air travel, fancy offices, and staff assistants. (Ch. 12)
107
permissive federalism
sharing of power and authority between the national and state gov, the states portion is upon the permission of the national government
108
Personal Campaign
That part of a political campaign concerned with presenting the candidate's public image
109
Personal following
The political support provided to a candidate on the basis of personal popularity and networks. (Ch. 7)
110
Personal Liberty
Freedom to engage in a variety of practices, free from gov't discrimination
111
PFIAB?
Founded in 1956 by President Eisenhower, the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB) is part of the Executive Office of the President of the United States. According to its self-description, it "...provides advice to the President concerning the quality and adequacy of intelligence collection, of analysis and estimates, of counterintelligence, and of other intelligence activities. The PFIAB, through its Intelligence Oversight Board, also advises the President on the legality of foreign intelligence activities.
112
Photo ops
Photo opportunities.
113
Plaintiff
The party that initiates a lawsuit to obtain a remedy for an injury to his or her rights. (Ch. 14)
114
Plank
Any of the principles contained in a political party's platform.
115
Planned Parenthood Vs. Casey
states can regulate abortion but not with regulations that impose a burden to the woman; more leeway like the 24 hour waiting period and parent concent to minors
116
platform
statement of purpose and policy objectives drafted and approved by political parties at their national conventions, they rarely exert much influence on day-to-day politics
117
plea bargain
An agreement that permits a defendant to plead guilty to a lesser charge instead of pleading not guilty to a more serious one. Plea bargaining is usually undertaken by a prosecutor to obtain important information from a defendant or to avoid a long and costly trial
118
Pledge of Allegiance
Also called the “Pledge to the Flag.†The American patriotic vow, which is often recited at formal government ceremonies, including Independence Day ceremonies for new citizens: “I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.â€
‡ The phrase under God, added in 1954 (more than sixty years after the pledge was originally published), has inspired heated debate over the separation of church and state.
119
Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896)
Supreme Court ruling that "separate but equal" facilities for the different races were not unconstitutional. This ruling opened the door to 75 years of state-sanctioned segregation in the South.
120
Pluralism
A group theory that involves different groups all vying for control of the policy agenda. No single group emerges, forcing the groups to compromise.
121
Plurality
Winning number of votes received in a race containing more than two candidates but which is not more than half of the total votes cast.
122
Plurality system
An electoral system, used in almost all American elections, in which the winner is the person who gets the most votes, even if he or she does not receive a majority of the votes. (Ch. 7)
123
pocket veto
If the president fails to approve a bill passed during the last 10 days of a Congressional session, the bill does not become a law.
124
Police power
The power of a state to promote health, safety, and morals. (Ch. 3)
125
Policy agenda
Agenda that results from the interaction of linkage institutions.
126
Policy entrepreneurs
Those in and out of government who find ways of pulling together a legislative majority on behalf of unorganized interests. See also Entrepreneurial politics (Ch. 15)
127
policy implementation
the process by which executive departments and agencies put legislation into practive, they are often allowed a degree of freedom to interpret legislation as they write guidelines to enact and enforce the law
128
political action committee
(PAC) Fundraising apparatus of interest groups; donations are regulated by federal law; contribute heavily to the reelection campaigns of representatives and senators sympathetic to the PAC's political agenda.
129
Political agenda
A set of issues thought by the public or those in power to merit action by the government. (Ch. 15)
130
Political consultant
Person who specializes in running a political campaign. James Carville and Karl Rove are examples of political consultants.
131
Political culture
A broadly shared way of thinking about political and economic life that reflects fundamental assumptions about how government should operate. It is distinct from political ideology, which refers to a more or less consistent set of views about the policies government ought to follow. Up to a point people sharing a common political culture can disagree about ideology. See also Political ideology (Ch. 4)
132
Political editorializing rule
A rule of the Federal Communica-tions Commission that if a broadcaster endorses a candidate, the opposing candidate has a right to reply. (Ch. 10)
133
Political efficacy
A citizen's belief that he or she can understand and influence political affairs. This sense is divided into two parts--internal efficacy (confidence in a citizen's own abilities to understand and take part in political affairs) and external efficacy (a belief that the system will respond to a citizen's demands). (Ch. 4)
134
Political Ideology
Set of coherent values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of gov't
135
Political machine
A party organization that recruits its members by dispensing patronage--tangible incentives such as money, political jobs, or an opportunity to get favors from government--and that is characterized by a high degree of leadership control over member activity. (Ch. 7)
136
Political participation
The different ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools that have influenced our elected officials.
137
Political party
A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government.
138
political party
an organization that seeks political power by electing people to office so that is positions and philosophy become public policy
139
political predisposition
a characteristic of individuals that is predictive of political behavior
140
Political question
An issue that the Supreme Court refuses to consider because it believes the Constitution has left it entirely to another branch to decide. Its view of such issues may change over time, however. For example, until the 1960s the Court refused to hear cases about the size of congressional districts, no matter how unequal their populations. In 1962, however, it decided that it was authorized to review the constitutional implications of this issue. (Ch. 14)
141
Political Socialization
The process through which an individual acquires particular political orientations; the learning process by which people acquire their political beliefs and values.
142
Political subculture
Fundamental assumptions about how the political process should operate that distinguish citizens by region, religion, or other characteristics. (Ch. 4)
143
Politico
Role played by elected representatives who act as trustees or delegates, depending on the issue
144
Politics
Who gets what, when, how, and why.
145
Poll
A survey of public opinion. See also Random sample (Ch. 5)
146
Poll tax
A requirement that citizens pay a tax in order to register to vote. It was adopted by many states to prevent former slaves (most of whom were poor) from voting. It is now unconstitutional. See also Grandfather clause; Literacy test (Ch. 6)
147
Pollution allowances (or banks)
A reduction in pollution below that required by law that can be used to cover a future plant expansion or sold to another company whose pollution emissions are above the legal requirements. (Ch. 21)
148
popular consent
the idea that a just gov must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs
149
popular sovereignty
a belief that ultimate power resides in the people
150
populism
The belief that greater popular participation in government and business is necessary to protect individuals from exploitation by inflexible bureaucracy and financial conglomerates. “Power to the people†is a famous populist slogan.
151
Populists
People who hold liberal views on economic matters and conservative ones on social matters. They prefer a strong government that will reduce economic inequality, regulate businesses, and impose stricter social and criminal sanctions. The name and views have their origins in an agriculturally based social movement and party of the 1880s and 1890s that sought to curb the power of influential economic interests. (Ch. 5)
152
pork
Budget items proposed by legislators to benefit constituents in their home state or district. Such expenditures are sometimes unnecessary but are passed anyway because they are politically beneficial.
153
Position issue
An issue dividing the electorate on which rival parties adopt different policy positions to attract voters. See also Valence issue (Ch. 8)
154
postmaster general
The head of the United States Postal Service. Until 1970, the postmaster general was head of the federal Post Office Department and a member of the president’s cabinet. In 1970, the Postal Service was set up as an independent agency in place of the Post Office Department. The Postal Service is operated like a private corporation, although postal workers receive the benefits of federal employees.
155
Poverty line
References the point at which an individual is considered living in what has been called a "culture of poverty."
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Power
The ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person's intentions. (Ch. 1)
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power elite
A term used by the American sociologist (see sociology) C. Wright Mills to describe a relatively small, loosely knit group of people who tend to dominate American policymaking. This group includes bureaucratic, corporate, intellectual, military, and government elites who control the principal institutions in the United States and whose opinions and actions influence the decisions of the policymakers.
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power of the purse
The influence that legislatures have over public policy because of their power to vote money for public purposes. The United States Congress must authorize the president’s budget requests to fund agencies and programs of the executive branch. (See appropriation.)
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powers prohibited to states
making treaties with foreign govs, authorising private persons to prey on the shipping and commerce of other nations, coining money/issuing bills of credit/making anything but gold and silver coin legal tender in payment of debts, taxing imports or exports, taxing foreign ships, keeping troops or ships in time of peace (except the state militia, now called the National Guard), engaging in war (unless invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit delay)
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Preamble
The introduction to the Constitution, outlining the goals of the document.
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Precedent
prior judicial decision that serves as a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature
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preemption
the right of a federal law or regulation takes precedence over enforcement of a state or local law or regulation
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president pro tempore
Individual chosen to preside over the Senate whenever the vice president is unavailable to do so. Chosen by the senate from among its members.
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Presidential primary
Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party's national convention.
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presidential ticket
the joint listing of the presidential and vice presidential candidates on the same ballot as required by the 12th amendment
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Presidentialist
One who believes that Article II's grant of executive power is a broad grant of authority allowing a president wide discretionary powers
167
Press briefing
A relatively restricted session between a press secretary or aide and the press
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Press Conference
An unrestricted session between an elected official and the press
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press release
A document offering an official comment or position
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Press secretary
Key White House staff position; the press secretary meets with the White House press corps.
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pressure group
An organized group that tries to influence the government to adopt certain policies or measures. Also called an interest group. (See lobby.)
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Price supports
The government's price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down.
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primaries
State elections of delegates to the nominating convention that chooses a major party’s presidential candidate. In some states, delegates are elected by popular vote; in other states, party caucuses or miniconventions choose delegates.
‡ Primaries occur at different times during the presidential election year, a situation that drags out the process by which parties nominate candidates but allows wide public exposure to candidates and issues.
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Primary election
An election prior to the general election in which voters select the candidates who will run on each party's ticket. Before presidential elections, a presidential primary is held to select delegates to the presidential nominating conventions of the major parties. See also Closed primary; Open primary (Ch. 8)
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Print Press
The traditional form of mass media, comprising newspapers, magazines, and journals
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Prior restraint
The traditional view of the press's free speech rights as expressed by William Blackstone, the great English jurist. According to this view the press is guaranteed freedom from censorship--that is, rules telling it in advance what it can publish. After publication, however, the government can punish the press for material that is judged libelous or obscene. (Ch. 18)
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privacy, right of
The doctrine, advanced by the Supreme Court most notably in Roe versus Wade, that the Constitution implicitly guarantees protection against activities that invade citizens’ privacy. The Constitution does not explicitly mention a right of privacy, but the First Amendment’s protection of free speech, the Fourth Amendment’s guarantee against “unreasonable searches and seizures,†the Ninth Amendment’s reference to “other†rights, the Court has ruled, imply a right of privacy. This doctrine exemplifies broad construction. (See Griswold versus Connecticut.)
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Private bill
A legislative bill that deals only with specific, private, personal, or local matters rather than with general legislative affairs. The main kinds include immigration and naturalization bills (Ch. referring to particular individuals) and personal-claim bills. See also Public bill (Ch. 11)
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Privileges and immunities
The guarantees that the rights of a citizen in one state will be respected by other states. Also a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from abuses by a state.
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probate court
(PROH-bayt) A court that has jurisdiction over wills, estates, and guardianship of children.
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Procedural due process
A series of steps that are established by the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments that protect the rights of the accused at every step of the investigation.
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Process regulation
Rules regulating manufacturing or industrial processes, usually aimed at improving consumer or worker safety and reducing environmental damage. (Ch. 15)
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Proclamation of 1763
Prohibited colonists from settling west of the rivers running through the Appalachians. It was issued in response to numerous Native American attacks on the settlers. This angered colonial settlers, who regarded it as unwarranted British interference in colonial affairs. The ban was repealed in 1766.
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Progressive
A person who believes that moral rules are derived in part from an individual's beliefs and the circumstances of modern life. Progressives are likely to favor government tolerance and protection of individual choice. (Ch. 4)
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progressive income tax
This increases the tax rates for people with higher incomes. Those citizens at poverty level, for example, might pay few or no taxes. Middle-class citizens might be taxed at a 15% rate, while the wealthy are taxed at two or three times that rate. The goal of this is to allow those with greater need to keep more or what they earn while taking from those who need it least.
186
project grants
Congress appropriated funds of a certain sum, allocated to gov units based on applications
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Proportional Representation
A voting system that apportions legislative seats according to the percentage of the vote won by a particular political party
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Prospective Judgment
A voter's evaluation of a candidate based on what he or she pledges to do about an issue if elected
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Prospective voting
Voting for a candidate because one favors his or her ideas for addressing issues after the election. (Ch. Prospective means "forward-looking.") See also Retrospective voting (Ch. 8)
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Public bill
A legislative bill that deals with matters of general concern. A bill involving defense expenditures is a public bill; a bill pertaining to an individual's becoming a naturalized citizen is not. See also Private bill (Ch. 11)
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public defender
An attorney who is appointed and paid by a court to defend poor persons who cannot afford a lawyer.
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public opinion
the distribution of individual preferences for or evaluations of a given issue, candidate, or institution within a specific population
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Public opinion polls
Scientific surveys aimed at gauging public preference of candidates and issues.
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Public policy
The final action(s) taken by government in promotional, regulatory, or distributive form.
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public works
Public facilities and improvements financed by the government for the public good. Public works include hospitals, bridges, highways, and dams. These projects may be funded by local, state, or federal appropriations. (See also pork-barrel legislation.)
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Public-interest lobby
A political organization the stated goals of which will principally benefit nonmembers. (Ch. 9)
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purpose of federal grants
supply state and local govs with revenue, to establish minimum national standards for things such as highways and clean air, to equalize resources among the states by taking money from people with high incomes through federal taxes and spending it through grants in states where the poor live, to attack national problems yet minimize the growth of federal agencies
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Purposive incentive
The benefit that comes from serving a cause or principle from which one does not personally benefit. (Ch. 9)
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Push Polls
"Polls" taken for the purpose of providing information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate
200
Pyramid structure
A method of organizing a president's staff in which most presidential assistants report through a hierarchy to the president's chief of staff. (Ch. 12)
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Quasi-judicial
A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them judicial power to interpret regulations they create.
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Quasi-legislative
A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them legislative powers to issue regulations.
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quid pro quo
something given with the expectation of receiving something in return
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quorum
(KWAWR-uhm) The minimum number of members of a committee or legislative body who must be present before business can officially or legally be conducted. In the United States Congress, for example, either house must have a majority (218 in the House of Representatives, 51 in the Senate) to have a quorum.
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Quorum call
A calling of the roll in either house of Congress to see whether the number of representatives in attendance meets the minimum number required to conduct official business. (Ch. 11)
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race
a grouping of human beings with distinctive characteristics determined by genetic inheritance
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racism
The belief that some races are inherently superior (physically, intellectually, or culturally) to others and therefore have a right to dominate them. In the United States, racism, particularly by whites against blacks, has created profound racial tension and conflict in virtually all aspects of American society. Until the breakthroughs achieved by the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, white domination over blacks was institutionalized and supported in all branches and levels of government, by denying blacks their civil rights and opportunities to participate in political, economic, and social communities.
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Raiding
An organized attempt by voters of one party to influence the primary results of the other party
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Railway Labor Act?
It governs labor relations in the railway and airline industries in the United States. The Act, passed in 1926 and amended in 1936 to apply to the airline industry, seeks to substitute bargaining, arbitration and mediation for strikes as a means of resolving labor disputes.
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rally point
a rise in public approval of the president that follows a crisis as Americans "rally round the flag" and the chief executive
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Random Sampling
A method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected
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ranking member
A legislator on a committee who belongs to the majority party and, by virtue of seniority, ranks first after the committee chairman. The most senior member representing the minority party is the ranking minority member of the committee.
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ratification
The approval from the legislative branch required to validate government agreements. In the United States, amendments to the Constitution require the ratification of state legislatures, and international treaties require the ratification of the Senate.
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Ratings
An assessment of a representative's voting record on issues important to an interest group. Such ratings are designed to generate public support for or opposition to a legislator. (Ch. 9)
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Reagan Democrats
Traditional Democratic middle-class voters turning to Ronald Reagan during the 1980s.
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Reaganomics
The federal economic policies of the Reagan administration, elected in 1981. These policies combined a monetarist fiscal policy, supply-side tax cuts, and domestic budget cutting. Their goal was to reduce the size of the federal government and stimulate economic growth. See also Supply-side theory; Monetarism (Ch. 16)
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realigning election
an election during period of expanded suffrage and change in the economy and society that proves to be a turning point, redefining the agenda of politics and the alignment of voters within parties
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realignment
occurs when a party undergoes a major shift in its electoral base and political agenda, the groups of people composing the party coalition may split up, resulting in a vastly different party. Realignments are rare and tend to be signaled by a critical election, last one occurred during the New Deal between the working-class and ethnic groups under the Democratic party
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Reapportionment
The process in which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based on population increases or decreases.
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Reapportionment Act of 1929
Act that provides for a permanent size of the House and for the number of seats, based on the census, each state should have.
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recall
procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term
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recall election
Process through which voters can shorten and office holder's term. One of several Progressive Era reforms that increased the voters' power over the government.
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Recess appointment
A presidential appointment made when the Congress is not in session that usually lacks enough votes in the Senate for confirmation. The position must be confirmed by the Senate by the end of the next session of Congress, or the position becomes vacant.
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Red tape
Complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that must be followed to get something done. (Ch. 13)
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redistricting
the redrawing of congressional and other legilsative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population
226
referendum
(ref-uh-REN-duhm) A direct popular vote on an issue of public policy, such as a proposed amendment to a state constitution or a proposed law. Referendums, which allow the general population to participate in policymaking, are not used at the national level, but are common at the state and local levels. A referendum is often used to gauge popular approval or rejection of laws recently passed or under consideration by a state legislature. A referendum can also be used to initiate legislative action.
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Reform party
a minor party founded by Ross Perot in 1995; focuses on national gov reform, fiscal responsibility, and political accountability; recently struggled with internal strife and criticism that i lacks an identity
228
Regional Primary
A proposed system in which the country would be divided into five or six geographic areas and all states in each region would hold their presidential primary on the same day
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Registered voters
People who are registered to vote. While almost all adult American citizens are theoretically eligible to vote, only those who have completed a registration form by the required date may do so. (Ch. 6)
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Regressive tax
A tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a sales tax.
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regulations
Rules that govern the operation of a particular government program that have the force of law
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regulatory agency
executive agency responsible for enforcing laws pertaining to a certain industry, the agency writes guidelines for the industry, such as safety codes, and enforces them through methods such as inspection
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Regulatory policy
Policy that results in government control over individuals and businesses. Examples of regulatory policy include protection of the environment and consumer protection.
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Rehnquist Court
First nominated by Richard Nixon in 1971, William Rehnquist was confirmed as the 16th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court after Warren Burger retired in 1986. He was known as a conservative jurist and his stewardship over the court reflected a court of judicial restraint and conservative tendencies.
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reinforcing cleavages
divisions within society that reinforce one another, making groups more homogeneous or similar
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Religious right
An evangelical conglomeration of ultraconservative political activists, many of whom support the Republican Party.
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Religious tradition
The moral teachings of religious institutions on religious, social, and economic issues. (Ch. 5)
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Remedy
A judicial order preventing or redressing a wrong or enforcing a right. (Ch. 14)
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Renewable resources
Those natural resources such as solar energy that can be used over again.
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representative democracy
Form of government under which citizens vote for delegates who in turn represent citizens' interest within the government. The US is this.
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representatives
Popularly elected officials who serve in state legislatures and in the House of Representatives in Congress. Representing the local districts from which they are elected, representatives support the interests of their constituents by proposing bills and programs. Elected for two-year terms, representatives in Congress must be sensitive to their constituents’ concerns in order to be reelected.
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Republic
A form of democracy in which power is vested in representatives selected by means of popular competitive elections. See also Representative democracy (Ch. 2)
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Republican
A member of the Republican party.
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Republican Party
Political party that evolved from the Whig Party, coming to power after Lincoln's election. It is one of the two current major political parties.
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Reserved Power clause
Found in the Tenth Amendment, it gives states powers not delegated to the national government.
246
Restrictive rule
An order from the House Rules Committee that permits certain kinds of amendments but not others to be made into a bill on the legislative floor. See also Closed rule; Open rule (Ch. 11)
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Retrospective voting
Voting for or against the candidate or party in office because one likes or dislikes how things have gone in the recent past. (Ch. Retrospective means "backward-looking.") See also Prospective voting (Ch. 8)
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Revenue sharing
A law providing for the distribution of a fixed amount or share of federal tax revenues to the states for spending on almost any government purpose. Distribution was intended to send more money to poorer, heavily taxed states and less to richer, lightly taxed ones. The program was ended in 1986. (Ch. 3)
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Reverse discrimination
Discrimination against whites or males, usually with regard to employment or education. Those who oppose affirmative action programs often claim reverse discrimination as a result of such programs. Alan Bakke is an example.
250
revolving door
employment cycle in which individuals who work for governmental agencies regulating interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern
251
Rider
An amendment on a matter unrelated to a bill that is added to the bill so that it will "ride" to passage through the Congress. When a bill has lots of riders, it is called a Christmas tree bill. (Ch. 11)
252
Right to Privacy
the right to be let alone; a judicially created doctrine encompassing an individual's decision to use birth control or secure an abortion
253
Right-of-reply rule
A rule of the Federal Communications Commission that if a person is attacked on a broadcast (Ch. other than in a regular news program), that person has the right to reply over that same station. (Ch. 10)
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right-wing
A descriptive term for an individual or a political faction that advocates very conservative policies. Right-wing groups generally support free enterprise. In the United States, the right wing generally argues for a strong national defense program and opposes federal involvement in promoting social welfare. (Compare left-wing.)
‡ Although both major political parties in the United States have right-wing factions, right-wing policies are usually associated with the Republican party.
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Robert's Rules of Order
A handbook for running meetings effectively and efficiently, based on the procedures used in the British parliament. The principles included in the handbook are applicable to any decision-making organization, from Congress to community club committees. The handbook sets the guidelines for such issues as leading debates; recognizing speakers; defining the role of the chair and other officers; proposing, seconding, and voting on motions; and writing and amending constitutions and bylaws.
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Roe v. Wade (1973)
Supreme Court case that decriminalized abortion.
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Roll-call vote
A congressional voting procedure that consists of members answering "yea" or "nay" to their names. When roll calls were handled orally, it was a time-consuming process in the House. Since 1973 an electronic voting system permits each House member to record his or her vote and learn the total automatically. See also Voice vote; Division vote; Teller vote (Ch. 11)
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Routine stories
Media reports about public events that are regularly covered by reporters and that involve simple, easily described acts or statements. For example, the president takes a trip or Congress passes a bill. (Ch. 10)
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rugged individualism
The belief that all individuals, or nearly all individuals, can succeed on their own and that government help for people should be minimal. The phrase is often associated with policies of the Republican party and was widely used by the Republican president Herbert Hoover. The phrase was later used in scorn by the Democratic presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman to refer to the disasters of Hoover’s administration, during which the stock market Crash of 1929 occurred and the Great Depression began.
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Rule of Four
At least 4 justices of the Supreme Court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard
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rule of law
generality: laws should be state generally/not singling out any group or individual, prospectivity: law should apply to the future/not punish something someone did in the past, publicity: laws cannot be kept secret and then enforced, authority: valid laws are made by those with legitimate power/the people legitimate that power through some form of popular consent, due process: laws must be enforced impartially with fair processes
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Rules committee
One of the most important committees of the House of Representatives; its function is to create specific rules for every bill to be debated by the full House.
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runoff primary
election held between top two vote-getters in a primary election, when neither received a legally required minimum percentage of the vote, many states require a runoff when no candidate receives at least 40 percent of the primary vote for his or her party
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Safe districts
Districts in which incumbents win by margins of 55 percent or more. (Ch. 11)
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Safe seat
An elected official who, as an incumbent, has an easy reelection as a result of his incumbency or the political makeup of the district.
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Safety net
A minimum government guarantee that ensures that individuals living in poverty will receive support in the form of social welfare program.
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sampling error
Margin of error in public opinion poll.
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saving amendment
Amendment to a bill proposed in hopes of softening opposition by weakening objectionable elements of the bill.
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Schenck v. United States (1919)?
It established the "clear and present danger" doctrine, in establishing that the right ro free speech can be curtailed in wartime. Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote the opinion.
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Scholastic Aptitude/Achievement Test
A test that purportedly measures the aptitude of high-schoolers for college. Originally devised in 1926, it was not widely employed by colleges to select students until the 1950s and 1960s.
‡ The SAT is controversial. College admissions officers have relied on it, but critics contend that it contains cultural biases that work against the admission of African-Americans and other minorities.
In the 1990s, the test's name was changed from "Aptitude" to "Achievement" recognizing that it more accurately measured what already had been learned rather than a test taker's potential to learn
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School district
A special-district government responsible for administering public schools. (Ch. 3)
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search warrant
Document issued by the courts to allow the police to search private property. TO obatain this, the police must go before a judge and explain (1) where the want to search, and (2) what they are looking for. This also limits where the police may search and what they may take as evidence (Fourth Amendment).
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SEC
The SEC was created by section 4 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
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Second Bill of Rights
Franklin D Roosevelt's State of the Union Address in 1944: 1 the right to a useful and remunerative job in the industries, shops, farms, or mines of the nation; the right to earn enough to provide adequate food and clothing and recreation; the right of every farmer to raise and sell his products at a return that would give him and his family a decent living; the right of every business man, large and small, to trade in an atmosphere of freedom from unfair competition and domination by monopolies at home or abroad; the right of every family to a decent home; the right to adequate medical care and the opportunity to achieve and enjoy good health; the right to adequate protection form the economic fears of old age, sickness, accident, and unemployment; the right to a good edu
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Second Treatise of Civil Government
Written by John Locke, it contains the blueprint principles found in the Declaration of Independence.
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Second-order devolution
The flow of power and responsibility from states to local governments. (Ch. 3)
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Secret Service
A division of the United States Department of the Treasury, responsible for apprehending counterfeiters; investigating a variety of federal crimes; and protecting presidents and their families, presidential candidates, and foreign dignitaries visiting the United States.
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secretary of defense
The civilian head of the United States Department of Defense and a member of the cabinet, appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The secretary of defense works with civilian and military advisers to formulate American military policies and make foreign policy recommendations to the president.
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secretary of state
The head of the United States Department of State and, as leading member of the cabinet, fourth in line of succession to the presidency. The secretary of state is charged with formulating American foreign policy and conducting relations with other nations.
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Secular Realignment
The gradual rearrangement of party coalitions, based more on demographic shifts than on shocks to the political system
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segregation
The policy and practice of imposing the separation of races. In the United States, the policy of segregation denied African-Americans their civil rights and provided inferior facilities and services for them, most noticeably in public schools (see Brown versus Board of Education), housing, and industry. (See integration, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and separate but equal.)
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Select committees
Congressional committees appointed for a limited time and purpose. See also Standing committees; Joint committees (Ch. 11)
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Selective attention
Paying attention only to those parts of a newspaper or broadcast story with which one agrees. Studies suggest that this is how people view political ads on television. (Ch. 10)
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selective exposure
the process by which individuals screen out messages that do not conform to their own biases
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Selective Incorporation
doctrine by which most - but not all - protections found in Bill of Rights are made applicable to states via 14th Amendment.
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selective perception
the process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media messages
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Selective Service System
The system used in the United States to draft young people into armed service. Though the United States at present has no draft, young men are required by law to register with the Selective Service when they reach the age of eighteen.
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self-incrimination
Being forced or coerced to testify against oneself. Self-incrimination is prohibited by the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
‡ Under this principle, a person may choose (given certain restrictions) to “take the Fifth,†refusing to testify in court or before a legislative or executive committee.
‡ Prohibiting self-incrimination not only helps guarantee due process of law, but also maintains one of the basic principles of American law by putting the burden of proof on the prosecution. (See also Miranda decision.)
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Senate
Upper house of Congress, in which each state has two representatives. This has the sole power to approve cabinet, ambassadorial, and federal judicial appointments. International treaties must receive 2/3 approval from the Senate.
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senate
Upper house of Congress, in which each state has two representatives. Has power to approve cabinet, ambassadors, and judges, and treaties.
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Senate confirmation
The process outlined in Article Two of the Constitution, giving the Senate the authority to approve appointments made by the president.
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Senate, United States
The upper house of the United States Congress. Two senators are elected from each state, regardless of state population, guaranteeing each state equal representation. Senators are elected for six-year terms. The Senate tends to respond more directly than the House of Representatives to issues of national, rather than local, concern, though both houses of Congress participate in all aspects of legislation and policymaking. The Senate has the exclusive right to try cases of impeachment, approve presidential appointments, confirm treaties, and elect a vice president if no candidate receives a majority from the Electoral College. The vice president serves as presiding officer of the Senate.
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Senatorial Courtesy
A process by which presidents, when selecting district court judges, defer to the senators in whose state the vacancy occurs
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Senior Executive Service
established by Congress in 1978 as a flexible, mobile corps of senior career exeuctives who work closely with presidential appointees to manage government
295
Seniority
A system guaranteeing that those who serve in office the longest get preferential treatment. In Congress, those representatives who serve the longest get seniority in their committee assignments.
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seniority rule
a legislative practice that assigns the chair of a committee or subcommittee to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee
297
Separate-but-equal doctrine
The doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (Ch. 1896), in which the Supreme Court ruled that a state could provide "separate but equal" facilities for African Americans. (Ch. 19)
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Separation of church and state
Also known as the "establishment clause," it is part of the First Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state-supported religion.
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separation of powers
A fundamental principle of the United States government, whereby powers and responsibilities are divided among the legislative branch, executive branch, and judicial branch. The officials of each branch are selected by different procedures and serve different terms of office; each branch may choose to block action of the other branches through the system of checks and balances. The framers of the Constitution designed this system to ensure that no one branch would accumulate too much power and that issues of public policy and welfare would be given comprehensive consideration before any action was taken.
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Sequential referral
A congressional process by which a Speaker may send a bill to a second committee after the first is finished acting, or may refer parts of a bill to separate committees. (Ch. 11)
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Sequester
Automatic, across-the-board cuts in certain federal programs that are triggered by law when Congress and the president cannot agree on a spending plan. (Ch. 16)
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Service strategy
A policy of providing poor people with education and job training to help lift them out of poverty. (Ch. 17)
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sexism
The belief that one sex (usually the male) is naturally superior to the other and should dominate most important areas of political, economic, and social life. Sexist discrimination in the United States in the past has denied opportunities to women in many spheres of activity. Many allege that it still does. (See also affirmative action, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, glass ceiling, and National Organization for Women.)
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Shared powers
Those powers that are concurrent, or overlapping, between the federal and state governments. Taxation is a shared power, for instance.
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Shaw Vs. Reno
No Racial gerrymandering
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Shays's Rebellion
A rebellion in 1787 led by Daniel Shays and other ex-Revolutionary War soldiers and officers to prevent foreclosures of farms as a result of high interest rates and taxes. The revolt highlighted the weaknesses of the Confederation and bolstered support for a stronger national government. (Ch. 2)
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shield law
Law guaranteeing news reporters the right to protect the anonymity of their sources. Many states have passed shield laws, but there is no federal shield law.
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Silent majority
A phrase used to describe people, whatever their economic status, who uphold traditional values, especially against the counterculture of the 1960s. (Ch. 5)
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Simple resolution
An expression of opinion either in the House of Representatives or the Senate to settle housekeeping or procedural matters in either body. Such expressions are not signed by the president and do not have the force of law. See also Concurrent resolution; Joint resolution (Ch. 11)
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Simpson-Marzzoli Act (1987)
Act that resulted in more than 2 million illegal aliens who were living in this country since 1982 being allowed to apply for legal status.
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single member district
an electoral district in which voters choose on representative or official
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Sixteenth Amendment (1913)
Authorized Congress to impose and collect federal income taxes.
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Slander
Speech that intentionally gives false information or defames the character of an individual.
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slush fund
A collection of money by a political official or administration that is used to make payments for various services. Though slush funds may be used for legitimate purposes, such as paying state employees, the term is generally used to describe money that is not properly accounted for and is being used for personal expenses and political payoffs. Money raised for political campaigns has come under increasing public scrutiny to ensure that it is not misused.
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Small Business Administration (SBA)?
The Small Business Administration, or SBA, is a United States Government agency that provides support to small businesses. The SBA was established on July 30, 1953 by the United States Congress with the passage of the Small Business Act.
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Smithsonian Institution
(smith-SOH-nee-uhn) A group of over a dozen museums and research and publication facilities, such as the National Air and Space Museum, the Museum of Natural History, the Museum of History and Technology, the National Zoo, and the National Gallery of Art. Many of the Smithsonian’s buildings are on the Washington Mall. The institution is named after James Smithson, an Englishman whose bequest enabled its founding in the nineteenth century.
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smoke-filled room
A popular expression used to describe a place where the political wheeling and dealing of machine bosses (see machine politics) is conducted. The image originated during the Republican presidential nominating convention of 1920, in which Warren G. Harding emerged as a dark horse candidate.
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Soccer mom
Term coined in 1996 presidential election referring to hose suburban women, some of whom are single parents, who supported President Clinton because of his articulation of their values.
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social capital
democratic and civic habits of discussion, compromise, and respect for differences, which grow out of participation in voluntary organizations
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Social Contract Theory
People are Free and Equal by God-Given right, so people must give their consent to be governed
321
Social movement
A widely shared demand for change in some aspect of the social or political order. The civil rights movement of the 1960s was such an event, as are broadly based religious revivals. A social movement may have liberal or conservative goals. (Ch. 9)
322
Social Security Administration
The American system for distributing old age and disability pensions from the federal government. Initiated through the Social Security Act of 1935, Social Security pensions are financed by contributions from workers and employers. Benefits are also available to the survivors of workers covered under Social Security.
323
Social status
A measure of one's social standing obtained by combining factors such as education, income, and occupation. (Ch. 5)
324
Social welfare
Entitlement programs such as Social Security and programs such as Aid to Dependent Children paid for by the federal government.
325
socialism
an economic and governmental system based on public ownership of the means of production and exchange
326
socioeconomic status
a division of population based on occupation, income, education
327
soft money
Political donations made to parties for the purpose of general party maintenance and support. This type of contribution is not limited by federal law. It can be used for get-out-the-vote campaigns, issue advocacy, and advertisements that promote the party (but not individual candidates).
328
Solicitor General
4th-ranking member of the Dept. of Justice; responsible for handling all appeals on behalf of the US gov't to the Supreme Court
329
Solid South
Dominance by the Democratic Party in the South following the Civil War. The Republicans made strong inroads when Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980 and after the Republicans gained control of the Congress in 1994.
330
Solidary incentives
The social rewards that lead people to join local or state political organizations. People who find politics fun and want to meet others who share their interests are said to respond to solidary incentives. (Ch. 7, 9)
331
Sophomore surge
An increase in the votes that congressional candidates usually get when they first run for reelection. (Ch. 18)
332
Sound bite
A brief statement no longer than a few seconds used on a radio or television news broadcast. (Ch. 10)
333
Sovereign immunity
A doctrine that a citizen cannot sue the government without its consent. By statute Congress has given its consent for the government to be sued in many cases involving a dispute over a contract or damage done as a result of negligence. (Ch. 14)
334
Sovereignty
Supreme or ultimate political authority; a sovereign government is one that is legally and politically independent of any other government. (Ch. 3)
335
Speaker of the House
presiding officer in the House of Representatives, formally elected by the House but actually selected by the majority party
336
special or select committee
a congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to conduct an investigation
337
Special-act charter
A charter that denies the powers of a certain named city and lists what the city can and cannot do. See also General-act charter (Ch. 3)
338
Special-district government or authority
A local or regional government with responsibility for some single function such as administering schools, handling sewage, or managing airports. (Ch. 3)
339
Spin doctor
Name given to political consultants who try to shape the story or actions of their clients to the media in a positive manner.
340
Split ticket
Voting for candidates of different parties for various offices in the same election. For example, voting for a Republican for senator and a Democrat for president. See also Straight ticket (Ch. 7)
341
split ticket voting
Choosing candidates from different parties for offices listed on the same ballot.
342
Spoils system
Another phrase for political patronage--that is, the practice of giving the fruits of a party's victory, such as jobs and contracts, to the loyal members of that party. (Ch. 13)
343
Sponsored party
A local or state political party that is largely staffed and funded by another organization with established networks in the community. One example is the Democratic party in and around Detroit, which has been developed, led, and to a degree financed by the political-action arm of the United Auto Workers. (Ch. 7)
344
Standing
A legal concept establishing who is entitled to bring a lawsuit to court. For example, an individual must ordinarily show personal harm in order to acquire standing and be heard in court. (Ch. 14)
345
Standing committees
Permanently established legislative committees that consider and are responsible for legislation within a certain subject area. Examples are the House Ways and Means Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee. See also Select committees; Joint committees (Ch. 11)
346
Stare decisis
A Latin term meaning "let the decision stand." The practice of basing judicial decisions on precedents established in similar cases decided in the past. (Ch. 14)
347
State Department
A common name for the Department of State.
348
State of the Union Address
Constitutional requirement imposed on the president to deliver an annual report regarding the current state of the nation to Congress. Traditionally, the president delivers the State of the Union Address every January, in the form of a speech before a joint session of Congress.
349
states' rights
Rights guaranteed to the states under the principle of federalism. Under the Constitution, states have considerable autonomy to pass, enforce, and interpret their own laws and to pursue their own public policy programs. Proponents of states’ rights argue that the states should be governed with a minimum of interference from the federal government.
‡ The relationship between federal and state responsibilities has often been controversial. Until the middle of the twentieth century, for example, the Supreme Court left the interpretation of many civil rights guarantees to the states, resulting in hostile and widespread discrimination against minorities.
350
statism
the idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals residing in that nation
351
statute of limitations
Any law that places a time restriction during which a lawsuit must be brought to court or a crime must be prosecuted.
352
Stewardship Theory
Theory that holds that Article II confers on the president the power and the duty to take whatever actions are deemed necessary in the national interest, unless prohibited by the Constitution or law
353
Straight ticket
Voting for candidates who are all of the same party. For example, voting for Republican candidates for senator, representative, and president. See also Split ticket (Ch. 7)
354
Stratified Sampling
A variation of random sampling; census data are used to divide a country into four sampling regions. Sets of counties and standard metropolitan statistical areas are then randomly selected in proportion to the total national population
355
straw poll
Originally, a small, informal opinion survey. Today, a straw poll is generally a large-scale, scientifically determined public opinion survey based on a random sample of the population. Straw polls are commonly used to test public opinion of candidates running for office.
356
Straw vote
Nonbinding vote used to determine the views of a small cross section of voters.
357
strict constructionism
Belief that the Constitution should be read in such a way as to limit as much as possible the powers of the federal government. Strict constructionists emphasize the importance of the Tenth Amendment, which reserves to all states and powers not explicitly granted the federal government.
358
Strict scrutiny
The standard by which the Supreme Court judges classifications based on race. To be accepted such a classification must be closely related to a "compelling" public purpose. (Ch. 19)
359
subpoena
(suh-PEE-nuh) An order of a court, a legislature, or a grand jury compelling a witness to be present at a trial or hearing, under penalty of fine or imprisonment. Subpoena is Latin for “under penalty.â€
360
Substantive Due Process
Judicial interpretation of the Due Process Clause that protects citizens from arbitrary or unjust laws
361
Substantive representation
The correspondence between representatives' opinions and those of their constituents. See also Descriptive representation (Ch. 11)
362
Suffrage
The right to vote guaranteed to African-Americans in the Fourteenth Amendment and women in the Nineteenth Amendment.
363
Sunshine Law
Requires all government meetings and records to be open to the public
364
Super Tuesday
The Tuesday on which a number of primary votes take place.
365
Superdelegates
Party leaders and elected officials who become delegates to the national convention without having to run in primaries or caucuses. Party rules determine the percentage of delegate seats reserved for party officials. (Ch. 7)
366
Supply-side theory
An economic philosophy that holds that sharply cutting taxes will increase the incentive people have to work, save, and invest. Greater investments will lead to more jobs, a more productive economy, and more tax revenues for the government. (Ch. 16)
367
supremacy clause
Section of the Constitution that requires conflicts between federal law and state law to be resolved in favor of federal law. State constitutions and laws that violate the US Constitution, federal laws, or international treaties can be invalidated through this.
368
Supreme Court
A federal court; the highest body in the judicial branch. The Supreme Court is composed of a chief justice and eight associate justices, all of whom are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. (See photo, next page.) They serve on the Court as long as they choose, subject only to impeachment. Each state also has a supreme court; these courts are all courts of appeals, primarily hearing cases that have already been tried. The federal Supreme Court (“the†Supreme Court) has the final word on interpretation of all laws and of the Constitution itself.
‡ Supreme Court decisions have a significant impact on public policy and are often extremely controversial. In interpreting the Constitution, the justices of the Supreme Court occasionally have deduced legal doctrines that are not clearly stated (or stated at all) in the Constitution. For example, in the famous case of McCulloch versus Maryland (1819), Chief Justice John Marshall advanced the opinion, accepted by the Court, that the Constitution implicitly gives the federal government the power to establish a national bank, even though such a power is not explicitly granted by the Constitution. Similarly, in Roe versus Wade (1973), the Court ruled that state laws restricting abortion violate the right of privacy.
‡ The McCulloch and Roe decisions illustrate the principle of broad construction (interpretation) of the Constitution. The opposite is narrow construction. Those who favor broad construction, or judicial activism, believe that the spirit of the times, the values of the justices, and the needs of the nation may legitimately influence the way justices decide cases. In contrast, narrow constructionists insist that the Court should be bound by the exact words of the Constitution or by the intentions of the framers of the Constitution or by some combination of both. This view is sometimes called judicial restraint.
369
Surface Transportation Board?
The STB is an economic regulatory agency that Congress created to resolve railroad rate and service disputes and reviewing proposed railroad mergers. The STB is decisionally independent, although it is administratively affiliated with the U.S. Department of Transportation.
370
Susan B. Anthony
Political activist who spent her life campaigning for women's right to vote.
371
Suspect classifications
Classifications of people on the basis of their race and ethnicity. The courts have ruled that laws classifying people on these grounds will be subject to "strict scrutiny." (Ch. 19)
372
sweetener amendment
Amendment to a bill proposed in hopes of attracting the support of the bill's opponents. This includes appropriations earmarked for the district of a bill's opponent, for example.
373
Symbolic speech
Form of free speech interpreted by the Supreme Court as a guarantee under the First Amendment to the Constitution, such as wearing a black armband to protest a governmental action or burning an American flag in protest for political reasons.
374
Taft-Hartley Act?
The Taft-Hartley Act, passed in 1947 and still largely in effect, severely restricts the activities and power of labor unions in the United States. The Act, officially known as the Labor-Management Relations Act, was sponsored by Senator Robert Taft and Representative Fred Hartley. U.S. President Harry S. Truman described the act as a "slave-labor bill" and vetoed it. The United States Senate followed the United States House of Representatives in overriding Truman's veto on June 23, 1947, establishing the act as a law. The Taft-Hartley Act amended the Wagner Act, officially known as the National Labor Relations Act, which Congress had passed in 1935.
375
Taftian Theory
A Theory that holds that the president is limited by the specific grants of executive power found in the Constitution
376
take care clause
Article 2, Section 3; the presidents take care that the laws are faithfully executed, even if they disagree with the purpose of those laws
377
Talking heads
Politicians who use sound bites or other means to present a superficial look at a policy position rather than an in-depth approach in explaining their views.
378
Teller vote
A congressional voting procedure in which members pass between two tellers, the "yeas" first and then the "nays." Since 1971 the identities of members in a teller vote can be "recorded." See also Voice vote; Division vote; Roll-call vote (Ch. 11)
379
Term Limits
Restrictions that exist in some states about how long an individual may serve in state and/or local elected offices
380
Texas v. Johnson Decision?
(1989), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States that invalidated prohibitions on desecrating the American flag in force in 48 of the 50 states. Justice William Brennan wrote for a five-justice majority in holding that the defendant's act of flag burning was protected speech under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.
381
The Federalist
series of essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788
382
The Patriot Act (2001)
act passed in response to the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, granting broad police authority to the federal, state, and local governments to interdict, prosecute, and convict suspected terrorists
383
the Ugly American
Pejorative term for Americans traveling or living abroad who remain ignorant of local culture and judge everything by American standards. The term is taken from the title of a book by Eugene Burdick and William Lederer.
384
theocracy
gov by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance
385
think tank
An institution in which scholars pursue research in public policy. Largely funded by endowments and grants, think tanks work to improve public awareness of policy issues (through publications) and to influence the government to act upon issues of national importance. (See power elite.)
386
Third political parties
Political parties that can be described as ideological, single-issue orientated, economically motivated, and personality driven. Examples include the Free Soil Party, Know-Nothings, Populist, and Bull Moose Parties. In 1996 Ross Perot created a new national third party called the Reform party.
387
Third World
Originally a French term (tiers monde) referring to nations neutral in the cold war between the United States and the former Soviet Union. The term now refers to the group of developing nations in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. See also Cold war (Ch. 20)
388
Third-order devolution
The use of nongovernmental organizations to implement public policy. (Ch. 3)
389
Third-Partyism
The tendency of 3rd parties to arise with some regularity in a nominally 2-party system
390
thirteenth amendment
Abolished slavery
391
Thirty-second spots
Paid political ads 30 seconds in duration.
392
three-fifths compromise
Agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention between southern and northern states. The south wanted slaves counted among the population for voting purposes but not for tax purposes; the North wanted the exact opposite. Both sides agreed that 3/5ths of a state's slave population would be counted toward both Congressional apportionment and taxation.
393
Title IX
Provision for the Education Amendments of 1972 that bars educational institutions receiving federal funds from discriminating against female students
394
totalitarianism
Form of government in which government's powers are unlimited.
395
Town or township
A subunit of county government in many eastern and Midwestern states. (Ch. 3)
396
Townshend Acts of 1767
Taxed goods imported directly from Britain. These also set soem of the tax collected aside for the payment of tax collectors, meaning that colonial assemblies coudl not withhold government officials' wages in order to get their way. Also, they suspended the NY legislature because it had refused to comply with a law requiring the colonist to supply British troops. THe colonists ultimately pressured the British into repealing these by organizing a successful boycott of British goods.
397
Tracking poll
Polls conducted by media outlets to gauge the potential outcome of a political election on a periodic basis.
398
treaty
a formal public agreement between the United States and one or more nations that must be approved by two thirds of the Senate
399
Trial balloon
Information provided to the media by an anonymous public official as a way of testing the public reaction to a possible policy or appointment. (Ch. 10)
400
Trial Court
Court of original jurisdiction where a case begins
401
Trust funds
Funds for government programs that are collected and spent outside the regular government budget; the amounts are determined by preexisting law rather than by annual appropriations. The Social Security trust fund is the largest of these. See also Appropriation (Ch. 13)
402
trustee
an official who is expected to vote independetly basedon his or her judgment of the circumstances; one interpretation of the role of the legislator
403
Trustee approach
The view that an elected representative should act on his or her own best judgment of what public policy requires. (Ch. 12)
404
turnout
the proportion of the voting age public that votes, sometimes as the nubmer of registered voters that vote
405
Twent-second Amendment (1951)
Limited the number of years an individual may serve as president. According to this, a president may be elected no more than twice.
406
Twenty-fifth Amendment
Constitutional amendment outlining the criteria for presidential selection and presidential disability.
407
Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964)
Outlawed poll taxes, which had been used to prevent the poor from voting.
408
twenty-second amendment
Limited the number of years an individual may serve as president
409
Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971)
Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
410
Two-party system
An electoral system with two dominant parties that compete in state or national elections. Third parties have little chance of winning. (Ch. 7)
411
Unalienable rights
Rights such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, which are derived from the doctrine of natural rights.
412
un-American
A term used, primarily by extreme conservatives, to attack principles or practices considered to be at odds with the values of most Americans. Many object to the use of the term on the grounds that it is vague, shortsighted, and intolerant.
‡ The House of Representatives maintained a Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) for several years. It was especially known for investigation of alleged communists. (See Alger Hiss.)
413
unanimous consent decree
Agreement passed by the Senate that establishes the rules under which a bill will be debated, amended, and voted upon.
414
Unanimous decisions
A decision made by the Supreme Court that has no dissent. A unanimous decision by the Court is 9-0.
415
Uncle Sam
A figure who stands for the government of the United States and for the United States itself. Uncle Sam—whose initials are the abbreviation of United States—is portrayed as an old man with a gray goatee who sports a top hat and Stars and Stripes clothing. During World War I and World War II, posters of Uncle Sam exhorted young men to join the armed forces. (Compare John Bull.)
416
Unfunded mandates
Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states without federal funds to support them.
417
Unified government
A government in which the same party controls both the White House and both houses of Congress. When Bill Clinton became president in 1993, it was the first time since 1981 (and only the second time since 1969) that the same party was in charge of the presidency and Congress. See also Divided government (Ch. 12)
418
union shop
A workplace where an employee must pay dues or their equivalent to the union, but may not be fired if he or she fails to maintain membership in good standing in the union for any reason other than failure to pay such dues.
419
Unit Rule
A traditional party practice under which the majority of a state delegation can force the minority to vote for its candidate
420
unitary system
constitutional arrangement in which power is concentrated in a central government
421
Unitary system of government
Type of government that centralizes all the powers of government into one central authority.
422
United Nations
International organization established following WWII. It aims to preserve international peace and foster international cooperation.
423
United States Information Agency
A federal agency responsible for spreading information favorable to the United States around the world.
424
Universal suffrage
Right of all qualified adults to vote.
425
unwritten Constitution
Certain deeply ingrained aspects of our government which are not mentioned in the Constitution, such as political parties; political conventions; and cabinet meetings.
426
US Regents Vs. Bakke
strict college admissions quotas unconstitutional but states may allow race to be taken into concideration as ONE factor in admissions decisions
427
US Vs. Lopez
Gun free school zones act exceeded congress' authority to regulated innerstate commerce
428
US Vs. Nixon
Allowed for executive privledges but not in criminal cases
429
US. v. Lopez significant?
From 1937 to 1995, the Supreme Court of the United States did not void a single Act of Congress for exceeding Congress's power under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution, instead holding that anything that could conceivably have even a slight impact on commerce was subject to federal regulation. It was thus seen as a (narrow) victory for federalism when the Rehnquist Court reined in federal regulatory power in United States v. Lopez (1995) and United States v. Morrison (2000).
430
USA Freedom Corps?
The USA Freedom Corps is a body within the Executive Office of the President of the United States, the President serving as its chair. Its creation was announced by George W. Bush in his State of the Union Address of January 29, 2002, and it was officially established on January 30, 2002, the next day. Housed at the White House, it identifies itself as a "Coordinating Council... working to strengthen our culture of service and help find opportunities for every American to start volunteering." [1] A USA Freedom Corps Network promotes individual volunteer service opportunities within the United States and abroad. The council is also involved with U.S. federal government service programs such as the Peace Corps, Citizen Corps, AmeriCorps and Senior Corps.
431
Valence issue
An issue on which voters distinguish rival parties by the degree to which they associate each party or candidate with conditions, goals, or symbols the electorate universally approves or disapproves of. Examples of such issues are economic prosperity and political corruption. See also Position issue (Ch. 8)
432
Veterans Administration
The second-largest cabinet department, the VA coordinates the distribution of benefits for veterans of the American armed forces and their dependents. The benefits include compensation for disabilities, the management of veterans’ hospitals, and various insurance programs.
433
Veterans of Foreign Wars
An organization of American veterans who have taken part in a foreign military campaign or expedition of the United States. Like the American Legion, it usually takes pro-defense stands on foreign policy issues.
434
veto
The power held by chief of executives (e.g. the president, governors) to reject acts of the legislature. A presidential version of this can be overridden by a 2/3s majority vote of both houses of Congress.
435
vice-admiralty courts
Military courts, in which defendants are not entitled to a trial by jury of peers. These were established in the colonies to try colonial smugglers because colonial juries often sympathized with smugglers and would not convict them.
436
victimless crime
A term sometimes used for various acts that are considered crimes under the law but apparently have no victim. One such crime is prostitution, which is viewed by some as a commercial exchange between two consenting adults.
437
Virginia Plan
initial proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central gov with a bicamerl legislature, the lower house to be elected by the voters and the upper chosen by the lower, representation based on wealth or population
438
Voice vote
A congressional voting procedure in which members shout "yea" in approval or "nay" in disapproval; allows members to vote quickly or anonymously on bills. See also Division vote; Teller vote; Roll-call vote (Ch. 11)
439
voter registration
system designed to reduce voter fraud by limiting voting to those who have established eligibility by submitting the proper form
440
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Act that finally made the Fifteenth Amendment a reality. As a result of this act, any state not eliminating the poll tax and literacy requirements would be directed to do so by the federal government. It also resulted in the establishment of racially gerrymandered congressional districts in the 1980s and 1990s.
441
Voting-age population
The citizens who are eligible to vote after reaching a minimum age requirement. In the United States a citizen must be at least eighteen years old in order to vote. (Ch. 6)
442
Wagner Act?
National Labor Relations Act of 1935; legalized union practices such as collective bargaining and the closed shop and outlawed certain antiunion practices such as blacklisting. Part of FDR's programs.
443
Wall-of-separation principle
A Supreme Court interpretation of the establishment clause in the First Amendment that prevents government involvement with religion, even on a nonpreferential basis. (Ch. 18)
444
Walsh-Healy Act?
Passed in 1936, the Walsh-Healy Act stated that workers must be paid not less than the prevailing minimumw age normally paid in a locality, restricted regular working hours to eigh hours a day, and 40 hours a week, with time and a half pay for additional hours, prohibited the employment of convicts and children under 18, and established sanitation and safety standards.
445
War on Poverty
Those programs of President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society that were specifically aimed at assisting the poor were known collectively as this. Among these programs was Volunteers in Serivce to America (VISTA), Medidcaid, and the creation of the Office of Economic Opportunity.
446
War Powers Act
Passed in 1973 - President is Limited in deployment of troops overseas to a 60-day period in peacetime unless Congress explicitly gives its approval for a longer period.
447
warren court
Supreme court best remembered for expanding rights of minorities and the accused.
448
Warren Court (1953-1969)
The Supreme Court durding the era in which Earl Warren served as the Chief Justice. It is best remembered for expanding the rights of minorities and the rights of the accused.
449
Watergate
Refers to the office complex in Washington, D.C., where members of the committee to re-elect Richard Nixon, posing as burglars, broke into the offices of the Democratic Party's national headquarters. They were caught, and the scandal ultimately led to Nixon's resignation.
450
Ways and Means Committee
A permanent committee of the House of Representatives, which makes recommendations to the House on all bills for raising revenue. The committee is the principal source of legislation concerning issues such as taxation, customs duties, and international trade agreements
451
Webster Vs. Reproductive Health Services
More leeway for states in regulating abortion
452
Wesberry Vs. Sanders
Ordered house districts to be as near population as possible
453
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
The Supreme Court struck down many of the FDR's New Deal reforms because they found they interfered with an individual's right to contract, implicit in the due process clause of the 14th amendmnet. This case, however, was when the supreme court basically overruled itself and started upholding many of FDRs laws, such as minimum wage, and laws limiting the number of working hours, etc. Effectively, one member of the court switched sides after FDR threatened to go to congress to ask to expand the number of supreme court justices so that he could attain a majority. The Judge's change of heart is known as the "switch in time that saved nine."
454
What are some exemptions to the 1966 FOIA?
National security, personal right to privacy, law enforcement, and well water geographic data. Most other info must be provided within 10 days under the 1966 Freedom of Information Act.
455
What are the 3 components of Social Security in the US?
Old Age, Survivors and Disability Insurance. Because of this, SS is sometimes called OASDI.
456
What labor arrangement does the federal governement operate under?
The Federal Government operates under "open shop" rules nationwide, although many of its employees are represented by unions. So, an employee cannot be compelled to join a union that may exist at the employer, nor can the employee be fired if s/he joins the union. In other words, the employee has the "right to work", whether as a union member or not.
457
What takes presedence, US domestic law or international law?
The US considers its domestic law to hold sway over international law. European nations tend to hold international law in a higer regard.
458
Which ammendments deal with due process?
The 5th and the 14th.
459
Whig Party
Political party from the 1830s to the 1850s. Loosely affiliated group of progressives and religious Americans whose common bond was their opposition to the Democratic Party. This disintegrated because of internal disputes concerning slavery.
460
Whip
A senator or representative who helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking, rounds up members when important votes are to be taken, and attempts to keep a nose count on how the voting on controversial issues is likely to go. (Ch. 11)
461
White House staff
Managed by the White House Chief of Staff, who directly advises the president on a daily basis, it includes the more than 600 people who work at the White House, from the chef to the advance people who make travel arrangements. The key staff departments include Intergovernmental Affairs. It includes the support services of Scheduling, Personnel, and Secret Service and the policy offices of the National Security Affairs, Domestic Policy Affairs, and cabinet secretaries.
462
White primary
The practice of keeping African Americans from voting in primary elections (at the time, the only meaningful election in the one-party South was the Democratic primary) through arbitrary implementation of registration requirements and intimidation. Such practices were declared unconstitutional in 1944. (Ch. 6)
463
Who can legally violate equal opportunity laws?
Churches. They can discriminate in hiring based on religion.
464
Who determines the GAAPs for state and local governement?
The Governmental Accounting Standards Board, since 1984. It is a private, non-governmental, organization. The mission of the Governmental Accounting Standards Board is to establish and improve standards of state and local governmental accounting and financial reporting that will result in useful information for users of financial reports and guide and educate the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of those financial reports.
465
Who does the Freedom of Information Act apply to?
The 1966 Act applies only to federal agencies. However, all of the states, as well as the District of Columbia and some territories, have enacted similar statutes to require disclosures by agencies of the state and of local governments, though some are significantly broader than others. Many combine this with Open Meetings legislation, which requires government meetings to be held publicly.
466
Who does the General Accounting Office (GAO) report to?
Congress, on government expenditures and other assignments.
467
Who may suspend the writ of habeas corpus and when?
Who: Good question. Traditionally it was thought that only congress could do so as the power to suspend HC was found in article I of the constitution, wherein the legislature's powers are defined. Lincoln did it, and though it was found to be unconstitutional, he merely ignored the ruling. PResident Grant also did it.
468
Who must the president inform before conducting a covert military operation?
The Congressional intelligence committees. For the CIA, it is the senate foreign relations committe as well.
469
winner-take-all system
an election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins
470
Wire Service
An electronic delivery of news gathered by the news service's correspondents and sent to all member news media organizations
471
Work ethic
A belief in the importance of hard work and personal achievement. (Ch. 4)
472
Workfare
An alternative to the traditional welfare, where an individual is trained to work instead of receiving welfare.
473
World Bank
Called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, it provides monetary assistance to nations for the development of industries and aims to stimulate economic growth of third-world nations.
474
Worldviews
More or less comprehensive mental pictures of the critical problems facing the United States in the world and of the appropriate and inappropriate ways of responding to these problems. (Ch. 20)
475
writ of certiorari
a legal document issued by the Supreme Court to request the court transcripts of a case, indicated that the Court will review a lower court's decision
476
Writ of habeas corpus
A Latin term meaning "you shall have the body." A court order directing a police officer, sheriff, or warden who has a person in custody to bring the prisoner before a judge and show sufficient cause for his or her detention. The writ of habeas corpus was designed to prevent illegal arrests and imprisonment. (Ch. 2)
477
writ of mandamus
court order directing an official to perform an official duty
478
write-in candidate
A candidate for public office whose name does not appear on the ballot (usually because he or she has not secured the nomination of a political party) but whose name must be written on the ballot by voters.
479
Yankee
Originally a nickname for people from New England, now applied to anyone from the United States. Even before the American Revolutionary War, the term Yankee was used by the British to refer, derisively, to the American colonists. Since the Civil War, American southerners have called all northerners Yankees. Since World War I, the rest of the world has used the term to refer to all Americans.
‡ The expression “Yankee, go home†reflects foreign resentment of American presence or involvement in other nations’ affairs.
480
Yellow Journalism
A form of newspaper publishing in vogue in the late-nineteenth century that featured pictures, comics, color, and sensationalized, oversimplified news coverage
481
Zelman Vs. Simmons-Harris
Public money can be used to send dissadvantaged children to private schools/religious schools in tuition voucher programs
482
1986 Berlin discotheque bombing?
The April 5, 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing was a terrorist attack on the West Berlin La Belle discotheque that was frequented by U.S. soldiers. A bomb placed under a table near the DJ booth exploded at the club, killing a Turkish woman and two U.S. servicemen and injuring 230 people, including more than 50 American servicemen. Libya was blamed for the bombing after telex messages had been intercepted from Libya's East Berlin embassy, and the then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan retaliated by ordering airstrikes against the Libyan capital of Tripoli and city of Benghazi—see Operation El Dorado Canyon. At least 15 people died in the U.S. airstrikes on Libya – including a 15-month-old girl said to have been adopted by leader Colonel Gaddafi – and more than 100 were injured.
483
30 years war?
It was fought between the years 1618 and 1648, principally on the territory of today's Germany, but also involving most of the major continental powers. It occurred for a number of reasons. Although it was from its outset a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, the self-preservation of the Habsburg dynasty was also a central motive.
484
A major factor in Napoleon's failure to defeat Russia was?
harsh russian winter
485
A non aggression pact with the Soviet Union in 1939 was signed by ?
Germany
486
Abbasid Caliphate
Descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's uncle, al-Abbas, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate and ruled an Islamic empire from their capital in Baghdad (founded 762) from 750 to 1258. (p. 234)
487
Absolute Monarchy
where the king or queen has absolute power over all aspects of his/her subjects' lives
488
absolution
The theory popular in France and other early modern European monarchies that royal power should be free of constitutional checks. (p. 452)
489
According to Ram Mohun Roy, in order to successfully move towards independence, Indians had to...?
change some of their cultural and religious practices
490
Acheh Sultanate
Muslim kingdom in northern Sumatra. Main center of Islamic expansion in Southeast Asia in the early seventeenth century, it declined after the Dutch seized Malacca from Portugal in 1641. (p. 541)
491
acllas
Women selected by Inca authorities to serve in religious centers as weavers and ritual participants. (p. 318)
492
Aden
Port city in the modern south Arabian country of Yemen. It has been a major trading center in the Indian Ocean since ancient times. (p. 385)
493
Adolf Eichmann
Nazi architect of holocaust. Escaped after WWII to Argentina, but Israel hunted him down.
494
Adolph Hitler
Facist German Nazi leader 1933-1945. Strong centralized state. Tried to take over world and responsible for holocaust
495
African National Congress
An organization dedicated to obtaining equal voting and civil rights for black inhabitants of South Africa. Founded in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress, it changed its name in 1923. Eventually brought equality (809)
496
Afrikaners
South Africans descended from Dutch and French settlers of the seventeenth century. Their Great Trek founded new settler colonies in the nineteenth century. Though a minority among South Africans, they held political power after 1910. (735)
497
Age of enlightenment?
A trend in the 18th century in European philosophy, often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. The term also more specifically refers to a historical intellectual movement, "The Enlightenment." This movement advocated rationality as a means to establish an authoritative system of ethics, aesthetics, and knowledge. The intellectual leaders of this movement regarded themselves as courageous and elite, and regarded their purpose as leading the world toward progress and out of a long period of doubtful tradition, full of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny (which they believed began during a historical period they called the "Dark Ages"). This movement also provided a framework for the American and French Revolutions, the Latin American independence movement, and the Polish Constitution of May 3, and also led to the rise of capitalism and the birth of socialism.
498
agricultural revolution (18th Century)
The transformation of farming that resulted in the eighteenth century from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants were expelled (600)
499
Agricultural Revolution (ancient)
The change from food gathering to food production that occurred between ca. 8000 and 2000 B.C.E. Also known as the Neolithic Revolution. (p. 17)
500
Agriculture
Domestication of plants. Because agriculture required great effort and organization, it encouraged closer social ties and formation of long-lasting settlements.
