FSOT Master 5 Flashcards
1
Q
Coalition
A
An alliance among different interest groups (factions) or parties to achieve some political goal. An example is the coalition sometimes formed between Republicans and conservative Democrats. (Ch. 2)
2
Q
Coattail Effect
A
The tendency of lesser-known or weaker candidates lower on the ballot to profit in an election by the presence on the party’s ticket of a more popular candidate
3
Q
Coercive Acts
A
Closed Boston Harbor to all but essential trade (food and firewood) and declared it would remain closed until the damages incurred during the Boston Tea Party were paid for. Several measures tightened English control over the Massachusetts government and its courts, and another required civilians to house British soldiers.
4
Q
COINTELPRO?
A
COINTELPRO is an acronym (Counter Intelligence Program) for a program of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States. Although covert operations have been employed throughout FBI history, the formal COINTELPRO operations of 1956-1971 were broadly targeted against organizations that were (at the time) considered to have politically radical elements, ranging from those whose stated goal was the violent overthrow of the US government (such as the Weathermen) to non-violent civil rights groups such as Martin Luther King Jr.’s Southern Christian Leadership Conference to racist and segregationist groups like the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party. COINTELPRO began in 1956 and was designed to “increase factionalism, cause disruption and win defections” inside the Communist Party U.S.A.
5
Q
Cold war
A
Refers to the nonmilitary struggle between the United States (and its allies) and the former Soviet Union (and its allies) following World War II. (A cold war is distinguished from a hot or shooting war.) (Ch. 20)
6
Q
Collective security
A
Agreement to form through treaties mutual defense arrangements, such as NATO, which guarantee that if one nation is attacked, other nations will come to its defense.
7
Q
Command-and-control strategy
A
A strategy to improve air and water quality, involving the setting of detailed pollution standards and rules. (Ch. 21)
8
Q
commander in chief
A
The role of the United States president as highest ranking officer in the armed forces. The Constitution provides this power, but, through the system of checks and balances, gives Congress the authority to declare war. During periods of war, presidents such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lyndon Johnson, George H. W. Bush, William Jefferson Clinton, and George W. Bush have taken active roles as commander in chief.
9
Q
Commerce clause
A
Article I Section 8 Clause 3 of the Constitution giving Congress the authority to regulate interstate commerce and commerce with foreign nations.
10
Q
Committee clearance
A
The ability of a congressional committee to review and approve certain agency decisions in advance and without passing a law. Such approval is not legally binding on the agency, but few agency heads will ignore the expressed wishes of committees. (Ch. 13)
11
Q
Common law
A
Based on the legal concept of stare decisis, or judicial precedent.
12
Q
Communism
A
Economic System where workers own means of production and control distribution of resources
13
Q
Compensatory action
A
An action designed to help members of disadvantaged groups, especially minorities and women, catch up, usually by giving them extra education, training, or services. (Ch. 19)
14
Q
competitive federalism
A
term defined by Thomas R Dye, all units of gov competing with each other over ways to put together the goods and services of gov
15
Q
Competitive service
A
The government offices to which people are appointed on the grounds of merit as ascertained by a written examination or by having met certain selection criteria (such as training, educational attainments, or prior experience). (Ch. 13)
16
Q
Concurrent power
A
Power shared by the state and federal government, such as the power to tax.
17
Q
Concurrent resolution
A
An expression of congressional opinion without the force of law that requires the approval of both the House and Senate but not of the president. Used to settle housekeeping and procedural matters that affect both houses. See also Simple resolution; Joint resolution (Ch. 11)
18
Q
Concurring opinion
A
A Supreme Court opinion by one or more justices who agree with the majority’s conclusion but for different reasons. See also Opinion of the Court; Dissenting opinion (Ch. 14)
19
Q
Conditions of aid
A
Federal rules attached to the grants that states receive. States must agree to abide by these rules in order to receive the grants. (Ch. 3)
20
Q
confederation
A
consitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central gov but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals
21
Q
Confederation or confederal system
A
A political system in which states or regional governments retain ultimate authority except for those powers that they expressly delegate to a central government. The United States was a confederation from 1776 to 1787 under the Articles of Confederation. See also Federalism; Unitary system (Ch. 3)
22
Q
conference committee
A
Congressional committee that includes representatives of both houses of Congress. Their purpose is to settle differences between the Houes and Senate versions of bills that have been passed by their respective legislatures.
23
Q
confirmation hearings
A
Meetings held by the Senate to gather information about candidates for federal office nominated by the president of the United States. Under the Constitution, the president has the right to appoint whomever he wants to various government offices, including members of the cabinet and federal judges, but each appointment must be approved by the Senate as part of the separation of powers.
24
Q
Congress
A
The legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Popularly elected, senators and representatives are responsible for advocating the interests of the constituents they represent. Numerous congressional committees are organized to study issues of public policy, recommend action, and, ultimately, pass laws. Congress plays an important role in the system of checks and balances; in fact, the two-house (bicameral) organization of Congress acts as an internal check, for each house must separately vote to pass a bill for it to become a law. In addition to lawmaking, Congress has a variety of functions, including appropriation of funds for executive and judicial activities; instituting taxes and regulating commerce; declaring war and raising and supporting a military; setting up federal courts and conducting impeachment proceedings; and approving presidential appointments.
25
Congressional Budget Office
Congressional agency of budget experts who assess the feasibility of the president's plan and who help create Congress' version of the federal budget.
26
Congressional campaign committee
A party committee in Congress that provides funds to members who are running for reelection or to would-be members running for an open seat or challenging a candidate from the opposition party. (Ch. 7)
27
congressional district
The geographically defined group of people on whose behalf a representative acts in the House of Representatives. Reapportioned every 10 years according to new census data. All of equal size.
28
Congressional Medal of Honor
The highest military decoration in the United States armed services, often called the Congressional Medal of Honor. It recognizes valor and bravery in action “above and beyond the call of duty.†There have been some 3,400 recipients of the medal, which was established by an act of Congress in 1862.
29
Congressional oversight
Power used by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy.
30
Congressional Record
A published account of the votes, speeches, and debates of the United States Congress.
31
Congressional Review
The process by which Congress can nullify an executive branch regulation by a resolution jointly passed in both houses within sixty days of announcement of the regulation and accepted by the president.
32
Congressionalist
One who believes that Article II's provision that the president should ensure "faithful execution of the laws" should be read as an injunction against substituting presidential authority for legislative intent.
33
Connecticut Compromise
Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it was adopted by the delegates and created a bicameral legislature, where one house is represented by population, and the other house is represented by the states.
34
conscientious objector
A person who refuses to render military service on the grounds of moral principle or religious belief. A CO must demonstrate a sincere, active, and long-standing objection in order to receive an exemption from armed service. The United States and some European governments officially recognize CO status; approved COs are usually required to perform social service or noncombat military service in place of armed duty. (See also draft, draft dodger, and Selective Service System.)
35
Consent of the governed
A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence, that puts the authority of the government in the peoples' hands.
36
conservatism
a belief that limited government ensures order, competitive markets, and personal opportunity
37
conservative
A political ideology that tends to favor defense spending and school prayer and to disapporve of social programs, abortion, affirmative action, and a large, active govt. Generally affiliated with the Republican party.
38
Conservative coalition
An alliance between Republicans and conservative Democrats. (Ch. 11)
39
Constituent
Person living in the district of an elected official.
40
Constitution
Provides the basic framework of government. It is the supreme law of the land.
41
Constitutional amendments
Additions and changes to the original Constitution. The first ten amendments make up the Bill of Rights; there are currently twenty-seven amendments.
42
Constitutional Convention
A meeting of delegates in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation, which produced a totally new constitution still in use today. (Ch. 2) Also, As yet untried methody by which the Constitution may be amended. To call a constitutional convention, two-thirds of all state legislatures must petition the federal government.
43
Constitutional court
A federal court exercising the judicial powers found in Article III of the Constitution and whose judges are given constitutional protection: they may not be fired (they serve during "good behavior"), nor may their salaries be reduced while they are in office. The most important constitutional courts are the Supreme Court, the ninety-four district courts, and the courts of appeals (one in each of eleven regions plus one in the District of Columbia). See also District courts; Courts of appeals; Federal-question cases (Ch. 14)
44
constitutional democracy
gov that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows the voice of the people to be heard through free, fair, and relatively frequent elections
45
constitutional government
Form of government in which government power is vested in the people and is defined and limited by law.
46
constitutionalism
set of arrangements, including checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, that requires leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain before they act or make laws. We then hold them politically and legally accountable for how they exercise their powers.
47
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.
48
Consumer Product Safety Commission?
an independent agency of the U.S. federal government created in 1972 through the Consumer Safety Act to protect “against unreasonable risks of injuries associated with consumer products”. The CSPC has the authority to regulate the sale and manufacture of most consumer products, with the exception of those regulated by other agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATFE).
49
containment, policy of
A United States foreign policy doctrine adopted by the Harry S. Truman administration in 1947, operating on the principle that communist governments will eventually fall apart as long as they are prevented from expanding their influence.
‡ The policy of containment was used to justify American involvement in the Korean War and the Vietnam War.
50
contempt of Congress
The deliberate obstruction of the workings of the federal legislative branch. For example, a witness under subpoena who refuses to testify before Congress can be cited for contempt of Congress.
51
contempt of court
The deliberate obstruction of a court’s proceedings by refusing to obey a court order or by interfering with court procedures. Contempt of court can be punished by fine, imprisonment, or both.
52
Content Regulation
Governmental attempts to regulate the electronic media
53
Continuing resolution
Emergency spending legislation that prevents the shutdown of any department simply because its budget has not been enacted.
54
Convention bump
An increase reflected in presidential preference polls immediately following a party's nominating convention.
55
cooperative federalism
Preeminent form of US federalism. (Marble cake analogy) National and state governments share many powers.
56
Cost
Any burden, monetary or nonmonetary, that some people must bear, or think that they must bear, if a policy is adopted. See also Benefit (Ch. 15)
57
Cost overruns
Actual costs that are several times greater than estimated costs. These occur frequently among private contractors producing new weapons for the Pentagon. (Ch. 20)
58
Council of Economic Advisors
White House staff agency created to give the president advice regarding economic and fiscal policy.
59
Council on Environmental Quality?
The United States Council On Environmental Quality (CEQ) is a division of the White House that coordinates federal environmental efforts and works closely with agencies and other White House offices in the development of environmental policies and initiatives. Congress established the CEQ within the Executive Office of the President as part of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA). Additional responsibilities were provided by the Environmental Quality Improvement Act of 1970.
60
County
The largest territorial unit between a city and a town. (Ch. 3)
61
court of appeals
Courts, also called appellate courts, that are designed as part of the system of due process. Cases may be presented to these courts if a party is dissatisfied with the original court’s decision. An appeal must demonstrate that a new decision is warranted, usually in light of new evidence or a persuasive argument that the Constitution was improperly interpreted. A case may be appealed to successively higher state or federal appellate courts until it reaches the United States Supreme Court. There are twelve federal courts of appeal, each covering a group of states called a “circuit.â€
62
Creative federalism
Developed during President Lyndon Johnson's administration, it was characterized by the Great Society programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs.
63
criminal court
Court in which criminal trials are heard
64
Criminal law
The body of rules defining offenses that, though they harm an individual (such as murder, rape, and robbery), are considered to be offenses against society as a whole and as a consequence warrant punishment by and in the name of society. See also Civil law (Ch. 14)
65
Critical Election
An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues
66
Critical or realigning periods
Periods during which a sharp, lasting shift occurs in the popular coalition supporting one or both parties. The issues that separate the two parties change, and so the kinds of voters supporting each party change. (Ch. 7)
67
cross-cutting cleavages
divisions within society that cut across demographic categories to produce groups that are more heterogeneous or different
68
Crossover voting
Participation in the primary of a party with which the voter is not affiliated
69
cruel and unusual punishment
Punishment prohibited by the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution. Cruel and unusual punishment includes torture, deliberately degrading punishment, or punishment that is too severe for the crime committed. This concept helps guarantee due process even to convicted criminals. Many people have argued that capital punishment should be considered cruel and unusual punishment.
70
Cue (political)
A signal telling a congressional representative what values (e.g., liberal or conservative) are at stake in a vote--who is for, who against a proposal--and how that issue fits into his or her own set of political beliefs or party agenda. (Ch. 9)
71
Culture of poverty
The establishment of an income level by government that references the point at which an individual is considered to be living in poverty.
72
Currency Act of 1764
Forbade the colonies to issue paper money. The colonists saw the British government increasing its control over the colonies against the colonists' will.
73
dark horse
An unexpected winner. In politics, a dark horse is a candidate for office considered unlikely to receive his or her party’s nomination, but who might be nominated if party leaders cannot agree on a better candidate
74
de facto discrimination
Racial discrimination that results from practice (such as housing patterns or other social factors) rather than the law
75
de facto segregation
(di FAK-toh, day FAK-toh) Racial segregation, especially in public schools, that happens “by fact†rather than by legal requirement. For example, often the concentration of African-Americans in certain neighborhoods produces neighborhood schools that are predominantly black, or segregated in fact (de facto), although not by law (de jure).
76
de jure discrimination
Racial segregation that is a direct result of law or official policy
77
dealignment
Voters act increasingly independent of a party affiliation. Split-ticket voting may be a consequence.
78
decentralists
people who favor state or local action rather than national action
79
Declaration of Independence
Blueprint for the American Revolution containing three parts. The first part - an introduction including ideas such as natural rights as related to life, liberty, and property, the consent of the governed, and the concept of limited government. The second part - a list of grievances against the King of England and the third part - a declaration of independence.
80
Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions (1848)
Drafted at the Seneca Falls Convention and taken from The History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. 1, by E.C. Stanton, S. B. Anthony, and M. J. Gage, the document that outlines the case for the right to vote for women, as well as other rights denied to women at that time.
81
Deep background
Information gathered for news stories that must be completely unsourced
82
defendant
The party that is being sued in court. (Compare plaintiff.)
83
Deficit spending
The government's meeting budgetary expenses by borrowing more money than it can pay back.
84
delegate
an official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when personally holding different views; one interpretation of the role of the legislator
85
Delegate model
The view that an elected representative should represent the opinions of his or her constituents. (Ch. 12)
86
delegated powers
Constitutional powers granted solely to the federal government.
87
democracy
gov by the people, either directly or indirectly, with free and frequent elections
88
Democrat
A member of the Democratic party.
89
democratic consensus
widespread agreement on fundamental principles of democratic governance and the values that undergird them
90
Democratic Party
Political party that evolved from the original Democratic-Republican Party. It is one of the two major political parties.
91
Democratic-Republicans
Led by Thomas Jefferson, they were characterized as the party of the "common man." They believed in a more limited role of the central government.
92
Demographics
Characteristics of a population, including age, sex, and race. Demographics are often used to determine changes in the make-up of a population.
93
department
usually the largest organization in government; also the highest rank in federal hierarchy
94
Department of Agriculture
A department of the federal executive branch that provides services for farmers, including agricultural research, soil conservation, and efforts to regulate and stabilize the farming economy.
95
Department of Commerce
A department of the federal executive branch whose responsibilities include management of the census and the United States Patent Office. Through a variety of bureaus and agencies, such as the Industry and Trade Administration and the Office of Minority Business Enterprise, the Department of Commerce works to promote American business interests at home and abroad.
96
Department of Defense
A department of the federal executive branch entrusted with formulating military policies and maintaining American military forces. Its top official is the civilian secretary of defense. It is headquartered in the Pentagon.
97
Department of Education
A department of the federal executive branch responsible for providing federal aid to educational institutions and financial aid to students, keeping national educational records, and conducting some educational research.
98
Department of Energy
A department of the federal executive branch responsible for developing policies for effective use of the nation’s energy resources. The Department of Energy is involved in energy conservation, regulating oil pipelines, and encouraging research on new sources of energy
99
Department of Health and Human Services
A department of the federal executive branch responsible for the Social Security Administration, the Public Health Service, and other programs designed to promote public welfare. It was originally called the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, until the separate Department of Education was created in 1979.
100
Department of Housing and Urban Development
A department of the federal executive branch responsible for home finance, promoting civil rights in housing, urban renewal, and the development of new communities.
101
Department of Justice
A department of the federal executive branch, headed by the attorney general, which administers the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), prosecutes violations of federal law, and is responsible for enforcing all civil rights legislation.
102
Department of Labor
A department of the federal executive branch concerned with improving working conditions and employment opportunities for laborers. Its programs include job training (especially for the poor), appraising manpower resources and needs, and regulating occupational safety.
103
Department of State
A department of the federal executive branch primarily responsible for making and conducting foreign policy. It is commonly called the State Department and is headed by the secretary of state. Its activities include negotiating treaties, coordinating correspondence and information programs with foreign governments, and administering economic aid to developing nations.
104
Department of the Interior
A department of the federal executive branch responsible for the National Park Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and a variety of programs designed to preserve natural resources in the United States and its territories and possessions in the Pacific Ocean.
105
Department of the Treasury
A department of the federal executive branch; it includes the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The Department of the Treasury has general responsibility for setting federal fiscal policy by collecting taxes and customs duties, administering the public debt, keeping all government accounts, minting currency, and licensing ships engaged in international and interstate commerce. The Department of the Treasury administers the Secret Service.
106
Department of Transportation
A department of the federal executive branch responsible for the national highways and for railroad and airline safety. It also manages Amtrak, the national railroad system, and the Coast Guard.
107
Department of Veterans Affairs
The second-largest cabinet department, the VA coordinates the distribution of benefits for veterans of the American armed forces and their dependents. The benefits include compensation for disabilities, the management of veterans’ hospitals, and various insurance programs.
108
Departments
Major administrative units with responsibility for a broad area of governmental operations. Departmental status usually indicates a permanent national interest in that particular governmental function, such as defense, commerce, or agriculture.
109
Descriptive representation
A correspondence between the demographic characteristics of representatives and those of their constituents. (Ch. 11)
110
Détente
A foreign policy started by Richard Nixon and supported by Ronald Reagan that resulted in an improvement of relations with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
111
Devolution
Political theory of returning power to the states.
112
devolution revolution
the effort to slow the growth of the federal government by returning many functions to the states
113
Dillon's rule
A legal principle that holds that the terms of city charters are to be interpreted narrowly. Under this rule (named after a lawyer who wrote a book on the subject in 1911) a municipal corporation can exercise only those powers expressly given it or those powers necessarily implied by, or essential to the accomplishment of, these stated powers. (Ch. 3)
114
direct democracy
All enfranchised citizens vote on all matters of government.
115
Direct Incitement
Holds that advocacy of illegal action is protected by 1st Amendment unless imminent lawless action is intended and likely to occur.
116
direct primary
An election in which voters choose candidates to run on a party’s ticket in a subsequent election for public office.
117
Direct tax
Money paid directly to the government in the form of income taxes.
118
discharge petition
petition that, if signed by a majority of the members of the House, will pry a bill from committee and bring it to the floor for consideration
119
Discount rates
Interest levels established by the Federal Reserve that affect the ability of the consumer to borrow money. Raising and lowering rates is used as a tool to combat inflation.
120
Discretionary authority
The extent to which appointed bureaucrats can choose courses of action and make policies that are not spelled out in advance by laws. (Ch. 13)
121
Discretionary Spending
Those appropriation items in the budget that are not mandatory. In the federal budget, discretionary spending consists of measures in the 13 appropriation bills that must be passed by Congress by October 1 in such categories as transportation, agriculture, and education.
122
Disengagement
A view that U.S. involvement in Vietnam had led to a military defeat and political disaster and that further similar involvements should be avoided. Also known as "new isolationism." See also Isolationism; Containment (Ch. 20)
123
Dissenting opinion
Judicial written opinion that is contrary to the ruling of the full court.
124
Distributive policy
Results in the government giving benefits directly to people, groups, farmers, and businesses. Typical policies include subsidies, research and development funds for corporations, and direct government aid for highway construction and education.
125
district attorney
An official responsible for representing the government in court cases and for prosecuting criminals.
126
District courts
The lowest federal courts where federal cases begin. They are the only federal courts where trials are held. There are a total of ninety-four district courts in the United States and its territories. See also Courts of appeals; Constitutional court; Federal-question cases (Ch. 14)
127
Diversity cases
Cases involving citizens of different states over which the federal courts have jurisdiction as described in the Constitution. See also Federal-question cases (Ch. 14)
128
Divided Government
The political condition in which different political parties control the White House and Congress
129
Division of labor
Skilled workers each have a specialized function, resulting in increased productivity.
130
Division vote
A congressional voting procedure in which members stand and are counted. See also Voice vote; Teller vote; Roll-call vote (Ch. 11)
131
Does the bill of rights apply to the states?
Yes, thanks to the 14th ammendment and other court decisions ( in 1925 with Gitlow v. New York ).
132
Does the presiden't cabinet deal more with foreign or domestic issues?
Domestic.
133
Does the president have "line item veto" power?
No. The Supreme Court upheld a lower court's ruling finding the line item veto to be unconstitutional, as the constitution lays out how the president may veto a bill, but is silent as to amending it. This leaves open the question if the constitution can be amended to allow for such a procedure.
134
dollar diplomacy
The use of diplomatic influence, economic pressure, and military power to protect a nation’s economic and business interests abroad. The term was first used to describe the exploitative nature of United States involvement in Latin America.
135
Domino theory
An influential theory first articulated by President Eisenhower holding that if an important nation were to fall into communist hands, other neighboring countries would follow suit. Eisenhower used the metaphor of a row of dominoes falling in sequence to illustrate his point. (Ch. 20)
136
donkey
A symbol of the Democratic party, introduced in a series of political cartoons by Thomas Nast during the congressional elections of 1874. (Compare elephant.)
137
double jeopardy
The act of trying an individual a second time after he has been acquitted on the same charges. Prohibited by the Constitution.
138
Double-tracking
A procedure to keep the Senate going during a filibuster in which the disputed bill is shelved temporarily so that the Senate can get on with other business. See also Filibuster; Cloture rule (Ch. 11)
139
draft
A system for selecting young men for compulsory military service, administered in the United States by the Selective Service System. At present the United States relies on a volunteer military and does not have a draft, though young men are required by law to register with the Selective Service. (See also conscientious objector and draft dodger.)
140
draft dodger
Someone who illegally evades the draft, as opposed to a conscientious objector, who is granted official, legal exemption from military duty. In active protest against United States involvement in the Vietnam War, many Americans publicly burned draft registration cards, risking imprisonment; others fled to other countries, such as Canada.
141
Dred Scott v. Sanford?
In 1857, the Supreme Court ruled that even free Africans could not sue in a federal court, since they were not citizens of the United States and that slaves brought into free territory remained slaves because they were a form of property.
142
Drug Enforcement Administration
An agency in the United States Department of Justice that enforces federal laws and regulations dealing with narcotics and other dangerous drugs. It cooperates with the FBI and with local law enforcement agencies.
143
dual federalism
Form of US federalism during nation's early history. Federal and state governments remain separate and independent (layer cake analogy)
144
Dual primary
Where presidential candidates are selected and a separate slate of delegates is also voted on. New Hampshire uses this type of primary.
145
Dual sovereignty
A variation of double jeopardy. A person accused of a crime can be tried once in a state court and once in a federal court.
146
Dualist Theory
The theory that there has always been an underlying binary party nature to US politics
147
due process
Established legal procedures for the arrest and trial of an accused criminal
148
due process of law
The principle that an individual cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property without appropriate legal procedures and safeguards. The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution guarantee that any person accused of a crime must be informed of the charges, be provided with legal counsel, be given a speedy and public trial, enjoy equal protection of the laws, and not be subjected to cruel and unusual punishment, unreasonable searches and seizures, double jeopardy, or self-incrimination.
149
E pluribus unum
(EE PLOOR-uh-buhs YOOH-nuhm, OOH-nuhm) A motto of the United States; Latin for “Out of many, one.†It refers to the Union formed by the separate states. E pluribus unum was adopted as a national motto in 1776 and is now found on the Great Seal of the United States and on United States currency.
150
Earmarks
Pet projects added to appropriation bills by congressman, called "wasteful spending" and "pork barrel legislation" by critics.
151
Earned Income Tax Credit
A provision of a 1975 tax law that entitles working families with children to receive money from the government if their total income falls below a certain level. (Ch. 17)
152
Eastern Establishment
The elite universities and financial institutions of major cities in the northeastern United States. These institutions, by virtue of their long-standing economic and social dominance, are often believed to exert an influence out of proportion to their size. In American politics, the Eastern Establishment often takes a liberal Republican stand. (See also Ivy League, Madison Avenue, power elite, and Wall Street.)
153
Economic planning
An economic philosophy that assumes that the government should plan, in varying ways, some part of the country's economic activity. For instance, in times of high inflation, it suggests that the government regulate the maximum prices that can be charged and wages that can be paid, at least in the larger industries. Another form of planning, called industrial policy, would have the government planning or subsidizing investments in industries that need to recover or in new industries that could replace them. (Ch. 16)
154
elastic clause
The section of the Constitution that allows Congress to pass laws "necessary and proper" to the performance of its duties. Allows Congress to stretch its pwers beyond those that are specifically granted to it.
155
Elector
Member of the electoral college chosen by methods determined in each state
156
Electoral College
(i-LEK-tuhr-uhl) The presidential electors who meet after the citizens vote for president and cast ballots for the president and vice president. Each state is granted the same number of electors as it has senators (see United States Senate) and representatives combined. These electors, rather than the public, actually elect the president and the vice president. The Founding Fathers assumed that electors would exercise discretion and not necessarily be bound by the popular vote, but the rise of political parties undermined this assumption. Electors are now pledged in advance to vote for the candidate of their party, and nearly always do so. Thus, the vote of the Electoral College is largely a formality.
‡ There have been several attempts to abolish the Electoral College. In the 2000 presidential election, the candidate with the plurality of popular votes lost the electoral vote, a situation that also occurred in the 1876 and 1888 elections.
157
Electorate
Citizens eligible to vote
158
Electronic Media
The broadcast media, including television, radio, computerized information services, and the Internet
159
elephant
A symbol of the Republican party, introduced in a series of political cartoons by Thomas Nast during the congressional elections of 1874. (Compare donkey.)
160
Elite
An identifiable group of persons who possess a disproportionate share of some valued resource--such as money or political power. (Ch. 1)
161
eminent domain
The power of the government to take away property for public use as long as there is just compensation for property taken.
162
Engel Vs. Vitale
prohibited state sponsered reciting of prayers in school
163
English Bill of Rights
1689 document guaranteeing certain basic rights to English subjects. Those rights include the right to a speedy trial; protection against excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment; and the right to petition the government. This document also prevented the king from interfering with elections or from imposing taxes without consent of the Parliament.
164
Enlightenment Era
Period stretching from the late 17th century through the end of the 18th century. Sometimes called the Age of Reason. Science flourished during the this. As it did, many philosophers placed great faith in the powers of reason and human capability. With this increased faith came the belief that individuals were entitled to greater control over their own governments. Associated with writers Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu.
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entitlement programs
social insurance programs that allocate federal funds to all people who meet the conditions of the program, they are a form of mandatory spending so it is incredibly difficult to cut funds during the budgetary process (Social Security largest and most expensive one)
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Entrepreneurial politics
Policies benefiting society as a whole or some large part that impose a substantial cost on some small identifiable segment of society. See also Policy entrepreneurs (Ch. 15)
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Enumerated powers
Delegated powers of Congress, including the power to collect taxes, pay debts, provide for the common defense and general welfare, regulate commerce among the states, coin money, and declare war.
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Environmental impact statement
A report required by federal law that assesses the possible effect of a project on the environment if the project is subsidized in whole or part by federal funds. (Ch. 21)
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency.
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environmentalism
an ideology that is dominated by concern for the environment but also promotes grassroots democracy, social justice, equal opportunity, nonviolence, respect for diversity, and feminism
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Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972
Title VII of the 1964 civil rights act was extended to cover federal, state and local public employers and educational institutions by the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972.
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Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Federal Agency created to enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin, religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing
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equal opportunity
The goal of giving all persons an equal chance to an education and employment, and to protect their civil rights, regardless of their race, religious beliefs, or gender. In the United States, various minority groups have been fighting for equal opportunity over the last 150 years. (See affirmative action, civil rights movement, equal protection of the laws, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, National Organization for Women, segregation, sexism, suffragist, and women’s movement.)
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equal protection of the laws
A phrase in the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution requiring that states guarantee the same rights, privileges, and protections to all citizens. This doctrine reinforces that of due process of law and prevents states from passing or enforcing laws that arbitrarily discriminate against anyone.
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Equal Rights Amendment
A twice-proposed but never ratified amendment to the Constitution that would prohibit denial or abridgement of rights on the basis of sex. First proposed in 1923, the amendment was passed by Congress in 1972 but failed ratification by the requisite number of states. It was a major rallying point of the women’s movement.
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Equal Time Rule
The rule that requires broadcast stations to sell campaign air time equally to all candidates if they choose to sell to any
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Equality of opportunity
A view that it is wrong to use race or sex either to discriminate against or give preferential treatment to minorities or women. See also Reverse discrimination (Ch. 19)
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Establishment clause
Component of the First Amendment to the Constitution that defines the right of the citizens to practice their religions without governmental interference. It also places a restriction on government creating a "wall of separation" between church and state. Section of the Constitution that prohibits the government from designating one faith as the official religion of the US.
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ethnicity
a social division based on national origin, religion, language, and often race
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ethnocentrisim
belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group
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ex post facto
(eks pohst FAK-toh) A descriptive term for an explanation or a law that is made up after an event and then applied to it: “The chairman’s description of his plan sounds like an ex post facto attempt to justify an impulsive action.†Ex post facto is Latin for “from after the deed.â€
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exclusionary rule
Rule that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial. The Supreme Court has created several exceptions to the exclusionary rule, notably the objective of good faith rule and the inevitable discovery rule.
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Executive agreement
Agreement made between the president and a leader of a foreign country that does not have to be ratified by the Senate.
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executive branch
The branch of federal and state government that is broadly responsible for implementing, supporting, and enforcing the laws made by the legislative branch and interpreted by the judicial branch. At the state level, the executive includes governors and their staffs. At the federal level, the executive includes the president, the vice president, staffs of appointed advisers (including the cabinet), and a variety of departments and agencies, such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the Postal Service (see postmaster general). The executive branch also proposes a great deal of legislation to Congress and appoints federal judges, including justices of the Supreme Court. Although the executive branch guides the nation’s domestic and foreign policies, the system of checks and balances works to limit its power.
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Executive Office of the President
the cluster of presidential staff agencies that help the president carry out his responsibilities; currently the office includes the Office fo Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, and other units
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Executive order
Order signed by the president that has the effect of law, even though it is not passed by Congress. An example of an executive order includes President Clinton's order legalizing the abortion bill, RU486. All executive orders must be published in the "Federal Register"
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Executive Privilege
An assertion of presidential power that reasons that the president can withhold information requested by the courts in matters relating to his office
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Exit Polls
Polls conducted at selected polling places on Election Day
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Export-Import Bank of the United States?
The Export-Import Bank of the United States (Ex-Im Bank, Exim Bank or Eximbank) is the official export credit agency of the United States Government. It is an independent agency of the Executive Branch of The United States Governemnt established by the Congress of the United States in 1945 that finances or insures foreign purchases of U.S. goods for customers unable or unwilling to accept credit risk. For instance, in 2004 it insured the purchase by Iraq of fogging machines for insect abatement. There are many other banks around the world called Eximbank, some analogous to the U.S. Ex-Im Bank, and some private commercial banks.
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express powers
powers sepcifically granted to one of the branches of the national gov by the Constitution
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Expressed power
Specific power of the president as listed in Article I of the Constitution.
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extradition
Process by which governments return fugitives to the jurisdiction from which they have fled.
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Faction
According to James Madison, a group of people who seek to influence public policy in ways contrary to the public good. (Ch. 2)
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Fair Labor Standards Act?
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, established a national minimum wage, guaranteed time and a half for overtime in certain jobs, and prohibited most employment of minors in "oppressive child labor". The law originally contained a large number of special industry exemptions, many of which were designed to protect traditional pay practices in small, rural businesses. The bulk of these exemptions have been repealed. Currently, the most important issues relate to the so-called "white collar" exemptions applicable to professional, administrative and executive employees.
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Fairness Doctrine
Rule in effect from 1949-1985 requiring broadcasters to cover events adequately and to present contrasting views on important public issues
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fairness doctrine
Federal Communications Commission policy that required holders of raido and televiison licenses to ensure that different view points were presented about controversial issues or persons; largely repealed in 1987
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Family Medical Leave Act (1993)
Act that gave unpaid emergency medical leave for employees with a guarantee that their job would not be taken away in the interim.
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Fannie Mae?
Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA), commonly known as Fannie Mae, created in 1938 to establish a secondary market for mortgages insured by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). Fannie Mae buys mortgages on the secondary market, pools them and sells them as mortgage-backed securities to investors on the open market. This secondary mortgage market helps to replenish the supply of lendable money for mortgages and ensures that money continues to be available for new home purchases.
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farm bloc
A group of both Democratic and Republican members of Congress from the farming states of the Middle West that pressures the federal government to adopt policies favorable to farmers.
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Favorable balance of trade
Refers to a country exporting more than they import. The United States has had an unfavorable balance of trade since World War II.
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Favorite son
The presidential candidate backed by the home state at the party's nominating convention.
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FCC
The FCC was established by the Communications Act of 1934 as the successor to the Federal Radio Commission and is charged with regulating all non-Federal Government use of the radio spectrum (including radio and television broadcasting), and all interstate telecommunications (wire, satellite and cable) as well as all international communications that originate or terminate in the United States. It is an important actor in US telecommunication policy. The FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission.
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Feature stories
Media reports about public events knowable to any reporter who cares to inquire, but involving acts and statements not routinely covered by a group of reporters. Thus a reporter must take the initiative and select a particular event as newsworthy, decide to write about it, and persuade an editor to run it. (Ch. 10)
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Federal Bureau of Investigation
An agency of the United States federal government, long headed by J. Edgar Hoover, which investigates violations of federal (rather than state or local) laws, including kidnaping, smuggling narcotics, and espionage.
‡ Established in 1908 under the Department of Justice, the FBI earned its reputation in the 1920s and 1930s by apprehending notorious bank robbers and gangsters
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Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA)
In 1971 it set up restrictions on the amount of advertising used by a candidate, created disclosure of contributions over $100, and limited the amount of personal contributions a candidate could make on his or her behalf. In 1974 it set up a Federal Election Commission and established a system of federal matching funds for presidential candidates.
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Federal Employees Political Activities Act
1993 liberalization of the Hatch Act. Federal employees are now allowed to run for office in nonpartisan elections and to contribute money to campaigns in partisan elections
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federal government
A government in which the national government and the local governments share certain power. The US is this.
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federal mandate
a requirement imposed by the federal gov as a condition for the receipt of federal funds
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Federal regime
A political system in which local units of government have a specially protected existence and can make final decisions over some governmental activities. (Ch. 3)
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Federal Register
official document, published every weekday, that lists the new and proposed regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies
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Federal Reserve Act?
A 1913 act of Congress that created the Federal Reserve System, the central bank of the United States of America. According to the United States Constitution, only the U.S. Congress has the power and responsibility to coin money and set its value. In the 1913 Federal Reserve Act however, Congress delegated this power to the Federal Reserve. All banks chartered under the National Banking Act of 1863 were made members of the Federal Reserve System, while others could join. A Board of Governors appointed by the President of the United States supervised the system.
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federal reserve board
Executive agency that is largely responsible for the formulation and implementation of monetary policy.
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Federal Reserve System.
The central bank of the United States; incorporates 12 Federal Reserve branch banks and all national banks and state-charted commercial banks and some trust companies. It was was created in 1913 by the Federal Reserve Act.
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Federal system
A system in which sovereignty is shared so that on some matters the national government is supreme and on others the state, regional, or provincial governments are supreme. (Ch. 3)
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Federal Trade Commission?
The Federal Trade Commission (or FTC) is an independent agency of the United States government, established in 1914 by the Federal Trade Commission Act. Its principal mission is the promotion of consumer protection and the elimination and prevention of anticompetitive business practices. The Federal Trade Commission Act was one of President Wilson's major acts against trusts. Trusts and trust-busting were significant political concerns during the Progressive Era. Since its inception the FTC has enforced the provisions of the Clayton Act, a contemporaneous antitrust statute. Over time, the FTC has been delegated the enforcement of additional business regulation statutes.
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federalism
term describing a system under which the national government and local governments share powers (United States and others including Canada, Switzerland, and Australia)
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Federalism
The overall division of power between the federal government and state governments; as defined in the Tenth Amendment of the Constitution. It specifically tells the states that they have reserved powers. Powers not delegated to the government by the Constitution are given to the respective states.
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Federalist papers
A series of eighty-five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay (all using the name "Publius") that were published in New York newspapers in 1787-1788 to convince New Yorkers to adopt the newly proposed Constitution. They are classics of American constitutional and political thought. (Ch. 2)
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Federalist Party
Headed by Alexander Hamilton, this party, made up of the country's upper class, supported a strong national government and set a policy agenda that would solve the nation's economic problems.
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Federalists
Supporters of a stronger central government who advocated ratification of the Constitution. After ratification they founded a political party supporting a strong executive and Alexander Hamilton's economic policies. See also Antifederalists (Ch. 2)
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Federal-question cases
Cases concerning the Constitution, federal law, or treaties over which the federal courts have jurisdiction as described in the Constitution. See also Diversity cases (Ch. 14)
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Fee shifting
A law or rule that allows the plaintiff (the party that initiates the lawsuit) to collect its legal costs from the defendant if the defendant loses. See also Plaintiff (Ch. 14)
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fellow traveler
One who supports the aims or philosophies of a political group without joining it. A “fellow traveler†is usually one who sympathizes with communist doctrines but is not a member of the Communist party. The term was used disparagingly in the 1950s to describe people accused of being communists.
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felony
(FEL-uh-nee) A grave crime, such as murder, rape, or burglary, that is punishable by death (see capital offense) or imprisonment in a state or federal facility.
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Fifteenth Amendment (1870)
Prohibited states from denying votings rights to African Americans. Southern states circumvented the Fifteenth Amendment through literacy tests and poll taxes.
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Fifth Amendment
One of the ten amendments to the United States Constitution that make up the Bill of Rights. The Fifth Amendment imposes restrictions on the government’s prosecution of persons accused of crimes. It prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy and mandates due process of law.
‡ To “take the Fifth†is to refuse to testify because the testimony could lead to self-incrimination
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Fighting words doctrine
Established in Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942), the decision incorporated into state law the concept that the government can limit free speech if it can be proved that the result of speech will cause physical violence.
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filibuster
(FIL-uh-bus-tuhr) A strategy employed in the United States Senate, whereby a minority can delay a vote on proposed legislation by making long speeches or introducing irrelevant issues. A successful filibuster can force withdrawal of a bill. Filibusters can be ended only by cloture.
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First Amendment
An amendment to the United States Constitution guaranteeing the rights of free expression and action that are fundamental to democratic government. These rights include freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, freedom of religion, and freedom of speech. The government is empowered, however, to restrict these freedoms if expression threatens to be destructive. Argument over the extent of First Amendment freedoms has often reached the Supreme Court. (See clear and present danger, libel, and obscenity.)
‡ The First Amendment begins the Bill of Rights.
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first amendment
Protects the rights of individuals against the government by guaranteeing the freedom of speech, the press, religion, and assembly.
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First Quota Act of 1921?
Also known as the Emergency Quota Act of May 19, 1921 it limited the annual number of immigrants who could be admitted from any country to 3% of the number of persons from that country living in the United States in 1910, according to Census figures. This totalled about 357,802 immigrants. Of that number just over half was allocated for northern and western Europeans, and the remainder for eastern and southern Europeans, a 75% reduction from prior years. Professionals were allowed in despite their origins. The act was passed in a time of swelling isolationism following World War I.
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Fiscal federalism
A concept of federalism where funding is appropriated by the federal government to the states with specific conditions attached. The legislation can be in the form of mandates.
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Fiscal policy
An attempt to use taxes and expenditures to affect the economy. (Ch. 16)
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fiscal year
Twelve month period starting on October 1. Government budgets go into effect at the beginning of the fiscal year. Congress and the president agree on a budget resolution in April to guide government spending for the coming fiscal year.
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Fletcher v. Peck (1810)
Decision that established the precedent that the Supreme Court could rule a state law unconstitutional.
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Focus group
Technique used by pollsters to determine how a cross section of voters feels about a particular topic.
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Foggy Bottom
A nickname for the United States Department of State, whose offices were built in a formerly swampy area of Washington, D.C., known as Foggy Bottom because of vapors rising from the swamp.
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Food stamp program
Federally funded program that gives food coupons to low-income people based on income and family size.
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Foreign Agricultural Service?
The Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) has primary responsibility for the U.S. Department of Agriculture's overseas programs -- market development, international trade agreements and negotiations, and the collection of statistics and market information. It also administers USDA's export credit guarantee and food aid programs and helps increase income and food availability in developing nations.
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Foreign Relations Committee
A committee of the Senate charged with overseeing the conduct of foreign policy.
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Foreign Service
The professional arm of the executive branch that supplies diplomats for the United States embassies and consulates around the world. Ambassadors, though officially members of the Foreign Service, are sometimes friends of the president of the United States appointed in gratitude for support given during elections.
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Fourteenth Amendment (1868)
Prevented the states from denying "due process of law" and "equal protection under the law" to citizens. The amendment was aimed specifically at protecting the rights of newly freed slaves. In the 20th century, the Supreme Court used teh amendment to strike down state laws that violate the bill of rights.
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franchise
In politics, the right to vote. The Constitution left the determination of the qualifications of voters to the states. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, states usually restricted the franchise to white men who owned specified amounts of property. Gradually, poll taxes were substituted for property requirements. Before the Civil War, the voting rights of blacks were severely restricted, but the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, declared ratified in 1870, prohibited states from abridging the right to vote on the basis of race. Nevertheless, southern states used a variety of legal ploys to restrict black voting until passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Women were not guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections until ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. In 1971 the Twenty-sixth Amendment lowered the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen. (See suffrage and suffragette.)
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Franking
Privilege enjoyed by members of Congress entitling them to free postage for any mailings made as part of their official duties.
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Franking privilege
The ability of members of Congress to mail letters to their constituents free of charge by substituting their facsimile signature (frank) for postage. (Ch. 11)
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Free Exercise Clause
Prohibits US government from interfering with a citizen's right to practice his or her religion
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Free Market Economy
"Invisible Hand" regulates prices, wages, product mix, etc
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free rider
an individula who does not join a group representing his or her interests yet receives the benefit of the influence the group achieves
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freedom of assembly
The right to hold public meetings and form associations without interference by the government. Freedom of peaceful assembly is guaranteed by the First Amendment to the Constitution.
‡ Segregation has been described as a violation of freedom of assembly.
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freedom of association
The right to form societies, clubs, and other groups of people, and to meet with people individually, without interference by the government.
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Freedom of expression
The constitutional rights of Americans to "freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances" as outlined in the First Amendment to the Constitution. (Ch. 18)
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freedom of information act
Act which declassified government documents for public use.
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Freedom of Information Act (1974)
Act that incorporates sunshine laws; opened up the government's meetings of record to the public and media.
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freedom of religion
The right to choose a religion (or no religion) without interference by the government. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the First Amendment to the Constitution. (See separation of church and state.)
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freedom of speech
The right to speak without censorship or restraint by the government. Freedom of speech is protected by the First Amendment to the Constitution. (See clear and present danger.)
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freedom of the press
The right to circulate opinions in print without censorship by the government. Americans enjoy freedom of the press under the First Amendment to the Constitution.
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friend of the court
An individual or group interested in influencing the outcome of a lawsuit but not an actual party to the suit. The statement presented to the court is an amicus curiae brief; amicus curiae is Latin for “friend of the court.â€
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front loading
Because early primaries have grown increasingly important in recent years, many states have pushed forward the date of their primary elections.
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Front runner
Designation given to the candidate who leads in the polls.
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front-loading
Because early primaries have grown increasingly important in recent years, many states have pushed forward the date of their primary elections. Political analysts use this term.
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frustration and agony
emotions felt when typing up all of these freaking vocabulary words
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full faith and credit clause
Section of the Constitution that requires states to honor one another's licenses, marriages, and other acts of state courts.
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Funded mandates
Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states with federal funds to support them.
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gay rights
The movement for civil rights for homosexuals. It originated after a police raid on a gay bar in New York City in 1969, which triggered a riot and launched the grassroots reform movement seeking to end social and legal discrimination against gays. (See Stonewall Riot.)
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gender gap
A phrase marking the trend in recent U.S. presidential elections, whereby more female than male voters support the Democratic party candidate and more male than female voters support the Republican party candidate.
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General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Agreement wherein new trade barriers would be avoided by member nations, existing tariffs would be eliminated, and protective tariffs would be used only for emergency situations.
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general election
Election held on the first Tuesday of November, during which voters elect officials.
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general election campaign
That part of a political campaign aimed at winning a general election
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General-act charter
A charter that applies to a number of cities that fall within a certain classification, usually based on city population. Thus in some states all cities with populations over 100,000 are governed on the basis of one charter, while all cities with populations between 50,000 and 99,999 are governed by a different one. See also Special-act charter (Ch. 3)
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Gerrymandering
The legislative process through which the majority party in each statehouse tries to assure that the maximum number of representatives from its political party can be elected to Congress through the redrawing of legislative districts
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Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Case established the principle that Congress has sole authority over interstate commerce.
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gideon v. wainwright
Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a defendant in a felony trial must be provided a lawyer free of charge if the defendant cannot afford one.
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Ginnie Mae?
The Government National Mortgage Association (GNMA) was created by the United States Federal Government through a 1968 partition of the Federal National Mortgage Association. The GNMA is a wholly owned corporation within the United States' Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Its main purpose is to provide financial assistance to low- to moderate-income homebuyers, by promoting mortgage credit. They also have the undesirable attribute of being callable every month, meaning that, unlike other bonds, all or part of a GNMA bond might suddenly "mature" next month, if all the homeowners decided to pay off or refinance their mortgages. This does not involve a risk of loss to the investor, but rather a premature payment of the principal, and now the investor has to go look for another investment for his money. This is called prepayment risk.
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Gitlow Vs. New York
states can not deny freedom of speech - precident for federalizing bill of rights
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Global interdependence
The degree of linkage among the community of nations.
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Gold plating
The tendency of Pentagon officials to ask weapons contractors to meet excessively high requirements. (Ch. 20)
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Gonzales Vs. Carhart
upheld partial birth abortion ban act o 2003
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Good Neighbor policy
A United States foreign policy doctrine, adopted by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933, designed to improve relations with Latin America. A reaction to the exploitative dollar diplomacy of the early 1900s, the Good Neighbor policy encouraged interaction between the United States and Latin America as equals. In the post–World War II era, however, the United States has often reverted to dollar diplomacy and gunboat diplomacy to impose its will on the countries of Latin America.
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Good-faith exception
Admission at a trial of evidence that is gathered in violation of the Constitution if the violation results from a technical or minor error. See also Exclusionary rule (Ch. 18)
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GOP
Abbreviation of Grand Old Party, a nickname for the Republican party in the United States
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Government
Those institutions that create public policy.
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Government Accountability Office (GAO)?
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) is the non-partisan audit, evaluation, and investigative arm of Congress, and an agency in the Legislative Branch of the United States Government. The GAO was established by the Budget and Accounting Act, 1921. According to GAO's current mission statement, the agency exists to support the Congress in meeting its Constitutional responsibilities and to help improve the performance and ensure the accountability of the federal government for the American people. The GAO is headed by the Comptroller General of the United States, a unique non-partisan position in the U.S. Government. The Comptroller General is appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate for a 15-year, non-renewable term. The President selects a nominee from a list of at least three individuals recommended by an 8 member commission of congressional leaders. The Comptroller General may not be removed by the President, but only by Congress through impeachment or joint resolution for specific reasons. GAO examines the use of public funds, evaluates federal programs and activities, and provides analyses, options, recommendations, and other assistance to help Congress make effective oversight, policy, and funding decisions. In this context, GAO works to continuously improve the economy, efficiency, and effectiveness of the federal government through financial audits, program reviews and evaluations, analyses, legal opinions, investigations, and other services. The GAO's activities are designed to ensure the executive branch's accountability to the Congress under the Constitution and the government's accountability to the American people.
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Government Corporations
Businesses established by Congress that perform functions that could be provided by private businesses. (like the US Postal Service)
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Governmental party
the Office holders and candidates who run under a political party's banner
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Gramm-Rudman-Holings Bill (1985)
set budget reduction targets to balance budget but failed to eliminate loopholes
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Grand and Petit Jury?
A Grand Jury is established to determine if a crime has been committed. A petit jury determines whether a person is guilty of a crime that has been committed.
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Grand Old Party
Known as the GOP, another way of identifying the Republic Party.
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Grandfather clause
A clause added to registration laws allowing people who did not meet registration requirements to vote if they or their ancestors had voted before 1867 (before African Americans were legally allowed to vote). This was to exempt poor and illiterate whites from registration requirements established to keep former slaves from voting. The Supreme Court declared the practice unconstitutional in 1915. (Ch. 6)
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Grants-in-aid
Federal funds provided to states and localities. Grants-in-aid are typically provided for airports, highways, education, and major welfare services. See also Categorical grants; Block grants (Ch. 3)
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Grassroots
Political participation at the local level.
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Gratz Vs. Bollinger
Stuck down use of bonus points for race in undergrad admissions at university of Michigan
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great compromise
Settlement reached at the Constitutional convention between large states and small states. Called for two legislative houses.
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Great Society
President Lyndon B. Johnson's social/economic program, aimed at raising the standard of living for America's poorest residents. Among its programs are Medicare, Medicaid, Project Head Start, Job Corps, and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA).
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Green Party
a minor party dedicated to the environment, social justice, nonviolence, and a foreign policy of nonintervention; Ralph Nader ran as the Green party's nominee in 2000
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Gridlock
Describes peoples' perception that Congress and the president are in a state of disagreement that results in little legislation passing.
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Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Supreme Court decision in which the Court ruled that the Constitution implicitly guarantees citizens' right to privacy
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Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Currently the key economic measure that analyzes an upward or downward economic trend of the monetary value of all the goods and services produced within the nation on a quarterly basis.
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Grutter Vs. Bollinger
Allowed race as a general factor in law school admissions at university of michigan
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guilt by association
The attribution of guilt to individuals because of the people or organizations with which they associate, rather than because of any crime that they have committed.
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Gulf War
1991 war between United Nations forces (led by the US) and Iraq. The war was instigated by Iraq's invasion of neighboring Kuwait.
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gunboat diplomacy
A policy toward a foreign country that depends on the use, or threat of the use, of arms. (See big stick diplomacy.)
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habeas corpus
(HAY-bee-uhs KAWR-puhs) A legal term meaning that an accused person must be presented physically before the court with a statement demonstrating sufficient cause for arrest. Thus, no accuser may imprison someone indefinitely without bringing that person and the charges against him or her into a courtroom. In Latin, habeas corpus literally means “you shall have the body.â€
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Hard money
Federally regulated campaign contributions made to political candidates and political parties. Under current law, hard money contributions cannot exceed $1000 per individual, per election cycle.
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Hatch Act
Law enacted in 1939 to prohibit civil servants from taking activist roles in partisan campaigns. This act prohibited federal employees from making political contributions, working for a particular party, or compaigning for a particular candidate
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hawks and doves
Popularly, “hawks†are those who advocate an aggressive foreign policy based on strong military power. “Doves†try to resolve international conflicts without the threat of force.
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hearsay
Information heard by one person about another. Hearsay is generally inadmissible as evidence in a court of law because it is based on the reports of others rather than on the personal knowledge of a witness.
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High-tech campaign
A major characteristic of the modern presidential campaign. The use of paid political ads, 30- and 60- second spots, paid infomercials incorporating charts and graphs, and sophisticated polling techniques have all been used in recent campaigns.
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Hold
Tactic by which a senator asks to be informed before a particular bill is brought to the floor. This stops the bill from coming to the floor until the hold is removed
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Home-rule charter
A charter that allows the city government to do anything that is not prohibited by the charter or by state law. (Ch. 3)
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homicide
(HOM-uh-seyed) The killing of one person by another, whether intended (murder) or not (manslaughter). Not all homicide is unlawful; killing in self-defense, for example, is not a crime.
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honeymoon
period at the beginning of a new president's term during which the president enjoys generally positive relations with the press and Congress, usually lasting about six months
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Hoover Commission?
An effort spearheaded by former president Herbert Hoover. It made a report to president Truman in 1949. The proposals of the Hoover Commission resulted in an extensive reorganization of the executive branch of the federal government. Another one was conductedand published its findings in 1955 during Eisenhower's administration. Their recommendations, over 70 percent of which were implemented by executive and legislative action, resulted in the elimination and consolidation of some departments but also in the creation of such new bodies as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the General Services Administration. In emulation of the federal government, many states set up similar bodies, known as “little Hoover commissions.”
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horse race
a close contest; by extension, any contest in which the focus is on who is ahead and by how much rather than one substantive differences between the candidates
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House of Burgesses
First legislature in the colonies. Formed in Virginia in 1916.
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house of representatives
Lower house of US Congress, in which representation is allocated to states in direct proportion to their population. Has sole power to initiate appropriations legislation.
316
house rules committee
Determines the rules for debate of each bill, including whether the bill may be amended. This is the most powerful committee in the House.
317
How is a president impeached?
There are two steps: First the House of Reps passes the articles of impeachment, which are the formal allegations, by a simple majority. Next, the Senate votes, by two-thirds majority to convict.
318
How is the vacancy of the office of the Vice President filled?
The president nominates a person, who then must be confirmed by a majoirty vote of both houses of Congress. This is embodied in the 25th Amendment.
319
How long is a US senator's term?
6 years. It seems more often because elections are staggered.
320
How many trust funds make up Social Security?
The Social Security System Comprises Four Trust Funds: Old-Age and Survivors Insurace, Disability Insurance, Hospital Insurance, Supplemental Medical Insurance
321
How often does congress override a president's veto?
Less than 5% of the time.
322
How often is the presidential veto overriden?
Less than 5% of the time.
323
Human rights
In foreign policy, the view that our government should act to enhance the rights of people living in other countries. (Ch. 20)
324
hung jury
A jury that is unable to reach a verdict of guilty or not guilty. The result is a mistrial, and legal proceedings must be reinitiated to bring the case to trial again. Trying the case a second time does not constitute double jeopardy.
325
Hyperpluralism
A group theory characterized by many interest groups vying for control resulting in a government that is tied up in a gridlock.
326
Ideological interest groups
Political organizations that attract members by appealing to their political convictions with coherent sets of (usually) controversial principles. (Ch. 9)
327
Ideological party
A party that values principled stands on issues above all else, including winning. It claims to have a comprehensive view of American society and government radically different from that of the established parties. (Ch. 7)
328
ideology
a consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of gov
329
Immigration Act of 1991
Act that shifted the quota of immigrants to Europe and aimed to attract immigrants who were trained workers.
330
impeachment
process by which a president, judge, or other government official can be tried for high crimes and misdemeanors (does not remove from office)
331
Imperial Congress
Describes a Congress that succeeds in establishing itself as dominant in legislative and foreign policy.
332
Imperial presidency
Term developed by historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr.; refers to presidents who dominate the political and legislative agenda.
333
Implementation
The process by which a law or policy is put into operation by the bureaucracy
334
Implied powers
Those powers in the Constitution that are not listed or delegated. An example of an implied power is the Elastic Clause, giving Congress the right to make laws that are "necessary and proper."
335
impoundment
presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds authorized and appropriated by Congress
336
In forma pauperis
A procedure whereby a poor person can file and be heard in court as a pauper, free of charge. (Ch. 14)
337
In the US, who needs to approve treaties, and with what percentage?
The senate, by a 2/3rds vote.
338
Incentive
A valued benefit obtained by joining a political organization. (Ch. 9)
339
Income strategy
A policy of giving poor people money to help lift them out of poverty. (Ch. 17)
340
Incorporation Doctrine
Holds that the Due Process Clause applies to State and Local gov'ts in addition to national
341
Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment
Doctrine that made the Bill of Rights apply to the states as a result of Supreme Court decisions. Even though the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868, incorporation started to take place in the 1920s. It reached a peak during the Warren Court in the late 1950s and 1960s.
342
Incumbency
The condition of already holding elected office
343
Incumbency factor
The fact that being in office helps a person stay in office because of a variety of benefits that go with the position
344
incumbent
(in-KUM-buhnt) One who holds a public office. By virtue of their experience in office, their exposure to the public, and their ability to raise campaign funds, incumbents usually have a significant advantage over opponents if they choose to run for reelection.
345
independent agency
a gov entity that is independent of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches
346
Independent Executive Agencies
Governmental units that closely resemble a Cabinet department but have a narrower area of responsibility (such as the CIA) and are not part of any Cabinet Department
347
independent expenditures
the Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates
348
Independent regulatory agencies
Agencies that are quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial in nature and operation. Example include the Food and Drug Administration and Environmental Protection Agency.
349
independent regulatory commission
a gov agency or commission with regulatory power who independence is protected by Congress
350
indictment
A written statement of criminal charges brought against a defendant. Guarantee that defendants know the charges against them so they can plan a defense.
351
Indirect tax
Money paid to the government as a result of purchased goods.
352
inevitable discovery
Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that the evidence would eventually have been found by legal means
353
Inflation
Economic situation characterized by steadily rising prices and falling purchasing power. It is, in part, caused by wage rates increasing faster than productivity.
354
Infomercials
Paid political commercials usually lasting longer than the average 30- or 60- second paid political ad.
355
Information superhighway
A linked conglomerate of computer-generated information also known as the internet.
356
inherent powers
the pwers of the national gov in the field of foreign afairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government
357
initiative
process through which voters may propose new laws, one of several Progressive Era reforms that increased voters' power over government
358
injunction
A court order that either compels or restrains an act by an individual, organization, or government official. In labor–management relations, injunctions have been used to prevent workers from going on strike.
359
Insider stories
Information not usually made public that becomes public because someone with inside knowledge tells a reporter. The reporter may have worked hard to learn these facts, in which case it is called "investigative reporting," or some official may have wanted a story to get out, in which case it is called a "leak." (Ch. 10)
360
Insurance program
A self-financing government program based on contributions that provide benefits to unemployed or retired persons. (Ch. 17)
361
integration
The free association of people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds (see ethnicity); a goal of the civil rights movement to overcome policies of segregation that have been practiced in the United States.
‡ Those favoring integration of schools by such forceful means as busing or affirmative action have frequently argued that integration of schools will lead to integration of society as a whole. (See separate but equal.)
362
Interagency councils
Working groups created to facilitate coordination of policy making and implementation across a host of governmental agencies.
363
interest group
Political group organized around a particular political goal or philosophy. Attempt to influence public poicy through political action and donations to sympathetic candidates.
364
Interest group politics
The politics of policy-making in which one small group bears the costs of the policy and another small group receives the benefits. Each group has an incentive to organize and to press its interest. See also Majoritarian politics; Client politics (Ch. 15)
365
interested money
financial contributions by individuals or groups in hope of influencing the outcome of an election and subsequently influencing policy
366
Internal Revenue Service
Part of the United States Department of the Treasury. The IRS is responsible for the collection of all federal taxes, except customs duties.
367
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
A clearinghouse for member nations to discuss monetary issues and develop international plans and policies to deal with monetary issues. Regulating monetary exchange rates is its primary task.
368
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887
The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC; 1887 - 1995) was a regulatory body in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, which was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. The Commission's seven members were appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. This was the first independent agency or so-called "Fourth Branch" agency. The ICC's original purpose was to regulate railroads (and later trucking) to ensure fair rates, to eliminate rate discrimination, and to regulate other aspects of common carriers. The ICC was dissolved in 1995.
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Interstate Commerce Commission
A federal agency that monitors the business operations of carriers transporting goods and people between states. Its jurisdiction includes railroads, ships, trucks, buses, oil pipelines, and their terminal facilities.
‡ The ICC was established in 1887 as the first federal agency.
370
interstate compact
agreement among two or more states, Constitution requires that most such agreements be approved by Congress
371
Invisible Primary
The first phase of the presidential nomination process, where candidates attempt to gain front-runner status and raise the most money.
372
Iron curtain
A metaphor first used by Winston Churchill to describe a military and political barrier maintained by the former Soviet Union to prevent free travel and communication between Eastern and Western Europe. (Ch. 20)
373
iron triangle
Also called subgovernment. Formed by the close working relationship among various interest groups, congressional committees, and executive agencies that enforce federal regulations.
374
Is the bulk of the data assembled by the CIA public or covert?
Public.
375
Isolationism
The view that the United States should withdraw from world affairs, limit foreign aid, and avoid involvement in foreign wars. See also Containment (Ch. 20)
376
issue advocacy
unlimited and undisclosed spending by an individual or group on communications that do not use words like "vote for" or "vote against" although much of this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates
377
Issue network
A network of people in Washington-based interest groups, on congressional staffs, in universities and think tanks, and in the mass media who regularly discuss and advocate public policies--say, health care or auto safety. Such networks are split along political, ideological, and economic lines. (Ch. 13)
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Issue-Oriented Politics
Politics that focuses on specific issues rather than on party, candidate, or other loyalties
379
Jim Crow laws
State and local laws passed in the post-Reconstruction Era South to enforce racial segregation and otherwise restrict the rights of African Americans.
380
John Locke
an important philosopher of the English Enlightenment. He believed that the rights to life, liberty, and ownership of property were given by God and could not be taken away by governments. His philosophy influenced the framers of the Constitution.
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John Marshall
Third Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (he served 1800-1835). A federalist who worked to increase the powers of the federal government over the states. He established the pricipal of judicial review.
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John Q. Public
Colloquial term for average citizens and what they want or believe. (Ch. 5)
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Joint Chiefs of Staff
A high-level military advisory board in the Department of Defense, composed of high-ranking representatives of the army, navy, air force, and marines. The Joint Chiefs are responsible for formulating military policy and recommending action regarding issues of national security and international relations.
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joint committee
a committee composed of members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate; such committees oversee
385
joint resolution
A measure approved by both houses of the United States Congress and signed by the president. Similar to an act of Congress, the joint resolution is used to approve or initiate foreign policy actions, to grant a single appropriations proposal, and to propose amendments to the Constitution.
386
judicial activism
A philosophy of judicial decision making that argues judges should use their power broadly to further justice, especially in the areas of equality and personal liberty
387
judicial branch
The court systems of local, state, and federal governments, responsible for interpreting the laws passed by the legislative branch and enforced by the executive branch. These courts try criminal cases (in which a law may have been violated) or civil cases (disputes between parties over rights or responsibilities). The courts attempt to resolve conflicts impartially in order to protect the individual rights guaranteed by the Constitution, within the bounds of justice, as defined by the entire body of U.S. law. Some courts try only original cases, whereas others act as courts of appeals. The ultimate court of appeals is the Supreme Court. On the federal level, the system of checks and balances empowers Congress to create federal courts, and all federal judges must be appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The courts may exercise the powers of judicial review and injunction.
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Judicial Implementation
Refers to how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit
389
judicial restraint
A view, associated with Felix Frankfurter among others, that judges should be reluctant to declare legislative enactments unconstitutional unless the conflict between the enactment and the Constitution is obvious. The doctrine is akin to, but not identical with, narrow construction, and it is the opposite of judicial activism.
390
judicial review
The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional.
391
Judiciary Act of 1789
Established the basic 3-tiered structure of the federal courts system
392
Judiciary committee
Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.
393
Jurisdiction
Authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in any particular case
394
jurisprudence
(joor-is-PROOHD-ns) The philosophy of law. Jurisprudence implies creating a body of law and methods for interpreting the law, studying the relationships between law and society, and predicting the effects of legal decisions. In the United States, lawmakers, attorneys, scholars, and courts all take an active role in guiding jurisprudence.
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justice of the peace
A local officer of the judicial branch empowered to try minor cases, recommend cases for trial, and perform civil ceremonies, such as marriages and oath taking. Justices of the peace are usually elected locally and are paid fees for their services.
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kangaroo court
A court that ignores principles of justice; a court characterized by incompetence and dishonesty.
397
Kelo Vs. City of New London
Local gov may force the sale of private properst to make way for private economic development when officials decide it would benefit the public
398
Keynesian economics
theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that gov spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms
399
Keynesianism
An economic philosophy that assumes that the market will not automatically operate at a full-employment, low-inflation level. It suggests that the government should intervene to create the right level of demand by pumping more money into the economy (when demand is low) and taking it out (when demand is too great). (Ch. 16)
400
Keynote address
Key speech at the national nominating convention that outlines the themes of the campaign.
401
killer amendment
Amendment to a bill proposed by its opponents for the specific purpose of decreasing the bill's chance of passing.
402
Ku Klux Klan
Nativist hate group founded during the Reconstruction Era. The Klan terrorized African Americans throughout the South, especially those who attempted to assert their civil rights. The preaches hatred of Catholics and Jews.
403
laissez faire economics
theory that opposes gov interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property
404
Lame duck
An officeholder who is either defeated or is retiring from the office in which he is serving, but still in office until his successor is sworn in; perceived to have little power or influence.
405
Land Ordinance of 1785
A major achievement of the government under the Articles of Confederation. It created an orderly procedure for the settlement of the Ohio Valley.
406
Landrum-Griffin Act?
The Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act (or LMRDA), also known as the Landrum-Griffin Act, is a United States labor law statute that regulates labor unions' internal affairs and union officials' relationships with employers. Enacted in 1959 after revelations concerning corruption and undemocratic practices in the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, International Longshoremen's Association, United Mine Workers and other unions received wide public attention, the Act requires unions to hold secret elections for local union offices on a regular basis and provides for review by the United States Department of Labor of union members' claims of improper election activity.
407
Landslide
Election where the winning candidate wins by more than 60 percent of the votes cast.
408
larceny
(LAHR-suh-nee) Theft; taking another person’s property with the intent of permanently depriving the owner.
409
Lawrence Vs. Texas
Using right of Privacy struck down texas ban on sodomy
410
Layer cake federalism
Federalism characterized by a national government exercising its power independently from state governments.
411
left-wing
A descriptive term for an individual or a political faction that advocates liberal, radical, or even revolutionary policies, usually in favor of overcoming social inequalities. In the United States, left-wing groups generally support federal social welfare programs designed to open opportunities to all citizens. (Compare right-wing.)
‡ Although both major political parties in the United States have left-wing factions, left-wing policies are usually associated with the Democratic party.
412
legislative branch
(LEJ-i-slay-tiv) The branch of the federal and state government empowered to make the laws that are then enforced by the executive branch and interpreted by the judicial branch. The legislative branch consists of Congress and the fifty state legislatures. At both state and federal levels, legislatures are made up of popularly elected representatives, who propose laws that are sensitive to the needs and interests of their local constituents. After a law is proposed as a bill, it is sent to appropriate committees for several stages of discussion, research, and modification. It is then debated in both legislative houses—except in Nebraska, which has a single-house legislature—and put to a vote. If the law is passed, it is still subject to further modification and final vote by both houses. Under the system of checks and balances, the president can refuse to sign the bill into law (through the veto power). The legislature can then vote to override the veto. Other checks and balances include legislative powers to impeach public officials (see impeachment), confirm appointments to the executive and judicial branches, and vote on appropriations.
413
Legislative Courts
Courts established by Congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Military Appeals
414
legislative oversight
one of Congress's most importat tasks, the investigation and evaluation of the performance of corresponding executive agencies and departments to check the power of the executive branch
415
Legislative Veto
A procedure by which one or both houses of Congress can disallow an act of the president by a simple majority vote; ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court
416
Legitimacy
Political authority conferred by law, public opinion, or constitution. (Ch. 1)
417
Lemon Vs. Kurtzman
allowed states to provide text books and busing services for students attending private schools
418
libel
A written, printed, or pictorial statement that unjustly defames someone publicly. Prosecution of libel as a punishable offense puts some measure of restriction on freedom of the press under the First Amendment.
419
Liberal
In general, a person who favors a more active federal government for regulating business, supporting social welfare, and protecting minority rights, but who prefers less regulation of private social conduct. See also Conservative (Ch. 5)
420
liberalism
a belief in the positive uses of government to bring about justice and equality of opportunity
421
Libertarian
Favors free market economy and no gov't interference in personal liberties.
422
Libertarian party
a minor party that believes in extremely limited gov; party members call for a freemarket system, expanded individual liberities such as drug legalization, and a foreign policy of nonintervention, free trade, and open immigration
423
libertarianism
an ideology that cherishes individual liberty and insists on a sharply limited government, promoting a free market economy, a noninterventionist foreign policy, and an absence of regulation in the moral and social spheres
424
Library of Congress
The largest library in the United States, located in Washington, D.C., and maintained largely by federal appropriations. Its original purpose was to provide research facilities for members of Congress; today it serves the public as well. Most copyrighted publications are catalogued by the Library of Congress, whose classification system is used by major libraries around the country.
425
limited government
principle of government that states that government powers must be confined to those allowed it by the nation's Constitution
426
Line item veto
Allows the president to veto selectively what he considers unnecessary spending items contained in legislation. It was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
427
Line officer?
A line officer (or otherwise termed "officer of the line") is a military officer who is trained to command a warship, ground combat unit, or combat aviation unit. Officers who are not line officers are those whose primary duties are in non-direct combat specialties (as opposed to those assigned to non-combat duties for a given tour or rotation) such as chaplains, lawyers, supply officers and medical officers (both nurses and doctors). The navy refers to them as Staff Officers. In the United States military, qualified line officers, regardless of rank, would in times of combat have authority over higher ranking non-line officers.
428
Linkage institutions
The means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy.
429
Literacy test
A requirement that citizens pass a literacy test in order to register to vote. It was established by many states to prevent former slaves (most of whom were illiterate) from voting. Illiterate whites were allowed to vote by a "grandfather clause" added to the law saying that a person could vote, even though he did not meet the legal requirements, if he or his ancestors voted before 1867. (Ch. 6)
430
Litmus test
In chemistry a way of finding out whether a liquid is acid or alkaline. The term is used in politics to mean a test of ideological purity, a way of finding out whether a person is a dyed-in-the-wool liberal or conservative or what his or her views are on a controversial question. (Ch. 14)
431
Loaded language
Words that reflect a value judgment, used to persuade the listener without making an argument. For example, if someone likes a politician, he might call him "the esteemed Senator Smith"; if he doesn't like him, he might refer to him as "that right-wing or radical senator." (Ch. 10)
432
Lobby
An interest group organized to influence government decisions, especially legislation. To lobby is to attempt to influence such decisions. A lobbyist is a person attempting to influence government decisions on behalf of the group. (Ch. 9)
433
lobbying
engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact
434
lobbyist
a person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches
435
Logrolling
Mutual aid among politicians, whereby one legislator supports another's pet project in return for the latter's support of his. The expression dates from the days when American pioneers needed help from neighbors in moving logs off of land to be farmed. (Ch. 15)
436
Loose construction
A liberal interpretation of the Constitution.
437
Machine
A party organization that recruits its members with tangible incentives and is characterized by a high degree of control over member activity
438
machine, political
An administration of elected public officials who use their influential positions to solidify and perpetuate the power of their political party, often through dubious means. Machine politicians make free use of the spoils system and patronage, rewarding loyal party supporters with appointed government jobs. Other machine methods include gerrymandering election districts; planting party representatives in neighborhoods; making deals with judges, lawyers, and other professionals; and “buying†votes by offering social services to potential voters. When machine politics was especially strong in the United States, during the latter half of the nineteenth century, politicians would go so far as to offer beer for votes and would embezzle large amounts of public money. Machines also dominated party caucuses and conventions, thereby affecting politics at all levels of government.
439
Magna Carta
1215 document that guaranteed British freemen the right to trial by jury and the right of the Great Council (which represented English nobility) to approve taxes proposed by the monarchy.
440
Majoritarian politics
The politics of policy-making in which almost everybody benefits from a policy and almost everybody pays for it. See also Interest group politics; Client politics (Ch. 15, 17)
441
majority
the candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election
442
Majority leader
The legislative leader elected by party members holding the majority of seats in the House of Representatives or the Senate. See also Minority leader (Ch. 11)
443
Majority opinion
Court ruling participated in by the majority of justices hearing a case.
444
Majority Party
Political Party in each house of Congress with the most members
445
majority rule
governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority
446
Majority-minority districts
Congressional districts designed to make it easier for citizens of a racial or ethnic minority to elect representatives. (Ch. 11)
447
Malapportionment
Drawing the boundaries of political districts so that districts are very unequal in population. (Ch. 18)
448
Mandate
A command, indicated by an electorate's votes, for the elected officials to carry out their platforms
449
Mandates
Rules imposed by the federal government on the states as conditions for obtaining federal grants or requirements that the states pay the costs of certain nationally defined programs. (Ch. 3)
450
Mandatory spending
Those appropriation items in a budget that must be allocated. In the federal budget, the majority of spending items are mandatory and include Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, payment on the national debt, and certain components of defense spending.
451
manifest destiny
a notion held by 19th centuryAmericans that the US was destined to rule the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific
452
manslaughter
(MAN-slaw-tuhr) The unlawful killing of a person, without malice or premeditation. Involuntary manslaughter is accidental, such as running into someone with a car. Voluntary manslaughter is committed in the “heat of passion,†as in a spontaneous fight in which one person is killed by a strong blow. Manslaughter is usually considered less serious than murder. Both murder and manslaughter are types of homicide.
453
Mapp Vs. Ohio
Established exclusionary rule; illegally obtained evidence can not be used in court
454
Marble cake federalism
Also known as cooperative federalism, it developed during the New Deal and is characterized by the federal government's becoming more intrusive in what was traditionally states' powers.
455
Marbury v. Madison?
(1803) landmark case in United States law wherein the U.S. Supreme Court established judicial review as a legitimate power of the Court on constitutional grounds.
456
Marginal districts
Political districts in which candidates elected to the House of Representatives win in close elections, typically with less than 55 percent of the vote. (Ch. 11)
457
Market (television)
An area easily reached by a television signal. There are about two hundred such markets in the country. (Ch. 10)
458
Marshall Court
John Marshall's tenure as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, whose leadership resulted in the landmark decisions of Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden. These cases shifted power to the judiciary and federal government.
459
Marshall Plan
Developed by President Truman's Secretary of State, George C. Marshall, and implemented after World War II beginning in 1947, it gave massive aid to help rebuild Europe after the war.
460
Marxists
People who believe that those who control the economic system also control the political one. (Ch. 1)
461
Mass media
Consisting of television, radio, newspapers, and magazines, they reach a large segment of the population. It is also considered one of the linkage institutions.
462
massive retaliation
The doctrine that the best way to deter aggression is to threaten a potential aggressor with devastation by atomic bombs. (See hawks and doves.)
463
Matching funds
Limited federal funds given to presidential candidates that match private donations raised during the campaign.
464
Material incentives
Benefits that have monetary value, including money, gifts, services, or discounts received as a result of one's membership in an organization. (Ch. 9)
465
Mayflower Compact
In 1620, the travellers aboard teh Mayflower signed an agreement establishing a body politic and a basic legal system for the colony. This agreement created a legal authority and a legislative assembly. It also asserted that the government's pwer derives from the consent of the governed, a concept central to limited government.
466
McCarthyism
Charges that unfairly or dishonestly tarnish the motives, attack the patriotism, or violate the rights of individuals, especially of political opponents. Refers to the numerous unsubstantiated accusations of communism made against public and private individuals by Senator Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s. (Ch. 18)
467
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Case that established the principle that the federal government was supreme over the state.
468
McGovern-Frasier Commission
Commission that brought significant representation changes to the Democratic Party. It made future conventions more democratic by including more minority representation.
469
Means test
An income qualification that determines whether one is eligible for benefits under government programs reserved for lower-income groups. (Ch. 17)
470
Medal of Honor
The highest military decoration in the United States armed services, often called the Congressional Medal of Honor. It recognizes valor and bravery in action “above and beyond the call of duty.†There have been some 3,400 recipients of the medal, which was established by an act of Congress in 1862.
471
Media Campaign
That part of a political campaign waged in the broadcast and print media
472
Media Effects
The influence of news sources on public opinion
473
Medicaid
A shared program between the federal and local governments that covers hospital and nursing home costs of low-income people.
474
Medicare
(MED-i-kair) A federal program providing medical care for the elderly. Established by a health insurance bill in 1965, as part of President Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society, the Medicare program made a significant step for social welfare legislation and helped establish the growing population of the elderly as a pressure group. (See entitlements.)
475
Mercantile System
System that binds trade and it's administration to the National gov't
476
Merit System
The system by which federal civil service jobs are classified into grades or levels, to which appointments are made on the basis of performance on competitive examinations.
477
Middle America
A phrase coined by Joseph Kraft in a 1968 newspaper column to refer to Americans who have moved out of poverty but are not yet affluent and who cherish traditional middle-class values. (Ch. 5)
478
Midterm Election
Election that takes place in the middle of a presidential term
479
Military-industrial complex
An alleged alliance among key military, governmental, and corporate decision-makers involved in weapons procurement and military support systems. The phrase was coined by Dwight D. Eisenhower, who warned Americans about its dangers. (Ch. 20)
480
Miller v. California Decision?
(1973) was an important United States Supreme Court case involving what constitutes unprotected obscenity for First Amendment purposes. The decision reiterated that obscenity was not protected by the First Amendment and established the Miller test for determining what constituted obscene material.
481
minor party
a small political party that rises and falls with a charismatic candidate or, if composed of ideologies on the right or left, usually persists over time; also called a third party
482
minority leader
The leader of the political party that holds a minority of seats in either house of Congress or of a state legislature. Selected by their own party caucuses, minority leaders act as chief spokespersons and strategists for their parties.
483
Minority opinion
A dissenting opinion written by a justice representing a minority point of view in the losing side of a Supreme Court decision.
484
Minority Party
Political Party in each house of Congress with the Second most members
485
Miranda decision
(muh-RAN-duh) A decision by the United States Supreme Court concerning the rights of persons in police custody. In the case of Miranda versus Arizona, in 1966, the Court ruled that, before questioning by the police, suspects must be informed that they have the right to remain silent and the right to consult an attorney, and that anything they say may be used against them in court. The Miranda ruling protects a suspect’s Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. The Miranda warning, a written statement of these rights, is normally recited by a police officer before interrogating the suspect in police custody.
486
misdemeanor
(mis-di-MEE-nuhr) A minor crime, punishable by a fine or a light jail term. Common misdemeanors, such as traffic violations, are usually dealt with informally, without a trial. (Compare felony.)
487
Monarchy
Form of gov't in which power is vested in hereditary kings and queens
488
Monetarism
An economic philosophy that assumes inflation occurs when there is too much money chasing too few goods. Monetarism suggests that the proper thing for government to do is to have a steady, predictable increase in the money supply at a rate about equal to the growth in the economy's productivity. (Ch. 16)
489
Monetary policy
An attempt to alter the amount of money in circulation and the price of money (Ch. the interest rate) to affect the economy. (Ch. 16)
490
monopoly
domination of an industry by a single company by fixing prices and discouraging competition; also the company that dominates the industry by these means
491
most-favored-nation
Status in an international trading arrangement whereby agreements between two nations on tariffs are then extended to other nations. Every nation involved in such an arrangement will have most-favored-nation status. This policy is used, particularly by the United States, to lower tariffs, extend cooperative trading agreements, and protect nations from discriminatory treatment. Most-favored-nation agreements can also be used to apply economic pressure on nations by deliberately excluding them from international trade.
492
Motor Voter Act of 1993
Signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to vote at motor vehicle departments.
493
movement
a large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing significance and who are willing to take action, seek to change attitude or institutions not just policies
494
Muckraker
A journalist who searches through the activities of public officials and organizations seeking to expose conduct contrary to the public interest. The term was first used by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 to warn that antibusiness journalism, while valuable, could be excessively negative. (Ch. 10)
495
Mugwumps or progressives
The faction in the Republican party of the 1890s to the 1910s composed of reformers who opposed the use of patronage and party bosses and favored the leadership of experts. After 1910 they evolved into a nonpartisan "good government" movement that sought to open up the political system and curb the abuses of parties. See also Political machine (Ch. 7)
496
Multiple referral
A congressional process whereby a bill may be referred to several committees that consider it simultaneously in whole or in part. For instance, the 1988 trade bill was considered by fourteen committees in the House and nine in the Senate simultaneously. (Ch. 11)
497
Municipal corporation or municipality
A legal term for a city. It is chartered by the state to exercise certain powers and provide certain services. See also Special-act charter; General-act charter (Ch. 3)
498
Name the order of presidential succession.
VP, speaker of house, pres. pro tempore of senate, Sec. State, Sec. Treasury, Sec. Defence, Attorney General.
499
Name-request job
A job to be filled by a person whom a government agency has identified by name. (Ch. 13)
500
narrow construction
A theory of interpretation of the Constitution that holds that the courts, particularly the Supreme Court, should be bound by the exact words of the Constitution, or by the original intent of the framers of the Constitution, or a combination of both. (Compare broad construction.)
