Final😳 Flashcards
Structural Level of Body Organization
Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → System → Organism
Body Planes/Sections
Frontal
Transverse
Midsagittal
Parasagittal
Oblique
Right upper quadrant
Liver, gallbladder, duodenum, right kidney, ascending colon
Left upper quadrant
Spleen, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, transverse/descending colon
Right lower quadrant
Appendix, right ovary, right spermatic cord, ureters, ileum, cecum
Lower left quadrant
Sigmoid colon, jejunum, left ovary, left spermatic cord
Negative feedback loop
Reverses change
Thermoregulation
Blood sugar regulation
Blood pressure regulation
Positive feed back loop
reinforces/strengths a change
Pregnancy
Lactation
Blood clotting
Major elements 96%
Oxygen 64%,
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Lesser elements 3.6%
Calcium
Potassium
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Iron
Trace elements 0.4%
Copper
Iodine
Selenium
Zinc
Ionic bonds
Donate & accept electrons
Cation (+) vs. Anion (-)
Solid; mainly in teeth and bones
Electrolytes formed when compound breaks apart into + or - ions in solution
Covalent bonds
Share electrons
When two or more atoms share valence electrons
Covalent polar
unequal sharing, hydrophilic
Covalent non polar
equal sharing, hydrophobic, most common
Hydrogen bonds
Weak
Attraction between a slightly negative and slightly positive molecule
Create surface tension, gives water cohesion
Stabilizer of larger molecules
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars that contain from 3-7 carbon atoms
Disaccharides
Simple sugars formed from the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis
Polysaccharides
Forms tens to hundreds of monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis
Fatty acids
Used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to generate ATP
Triglycerides
Protection, insulation, energy storage.
Phospholipids
Major lipid component of cell membranes.
Structural protein
Form structural framework of various parts of body
Regulatory proteins
Function as hormones that regulate various physiological processes, control growth and development; as neurotransmitrers,
mediate responses of nervous svstem.
Contractile proteins
Allow shortening of muscle cells, which produces movement.
Immunological protein
Aid responses that protect body against foreign substances and invading pathogens.
Transport proteins
Carry vital substances throughout body.
Catalytic proteins
Act as enzymes that regulate biochemical reactions.
Amino acids are
“building blocks”, basic units of protein. Peptides, polypeptides
Plasma membrane
Flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell. Functions include isolation, sensitivity and regulation of exchange in the environment, and structural support
Lipid bilayer
two back to back layers made of three types of lipid molecules
Lipid molecules
Phospholipids – 75%
Cholesterol – 20%
Glycolipids – 5%
Ion channel (integral)
Forms a pore through which a specific ion can flow to get across membrane
Carrier (integral)
Transports a specific substance across membrane by undergoing a change in shape
Receptor (integral)
Recognizes specific ligand and alters cell’s function in some way
Enzyme (integral and peripheral)
Catalyzes reaction inside or outside cell (depending on which direction the active site faces)
Linker (integral and peripheral)
Anchors filaments inside and outside the plasma membrane, providing structural stability and shape for the cell. May also participate in movement of the cell or link two cells together
Cell identity marker (glycoprotein)
Distinguishes your cells from anyone else’s (unless you are an identical twin)
Mitochondria
Produces ATP = energy currency. Temporarily stores.
Site of cellular respiration
Golgi complex
modifies molecules furthers, then sorts and packages them for transport to their destinations
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
contains ribosomes* synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred to cellular organelles, inserted into plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lacks ribosomes* synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies drugs, removes phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, and stores and releases calcium ions in muscle cells
Lysosome
Waste disposal system
Active transport in Vesicles — Receptor mediated Endocytosis:
Active process in which a cell expends energy (ATP) to move a substance across the membrane against its concentration gradient
Endocytosis
movement of substance to the inside of a cell
Exocytosis
Movement of substances out of a cell
Phagocytosis
“cell eating”; movement of a solid particle into a cell after pseudopods engulf it to form a phagosome
Pinocytosis
“cell drinking” ingestion of liquid into a cell
Epithelial tissue
Densely packed sheets of cells
Little to no ECM
Many cell junctions
Avascular, but has a nerve supply
Mitosis occurs frequently
Simple squamous
alveoli of lungs
Simple cubodial
thyroid gland
Simple columnar
small intestine
Stratified squamous
Epidermis
Stratified cubodial
sebaceous glands, sweat glands, ducts
Pseudostratified (ciliated)
trachea, bronchi
Transitional/urothelium
Urinary bladder
Connective tissue
Widely spaced cells
Lots of ECM = ground substance + fibers
Highly vascularized and nerve supply present (with the exception of Hyaline cartilage)
Binds, supports, and strengthens other body tissues
Embryonic
mesenchyme or mucous
Loose areolar
Most common
Loose areolar location
Subcutaneous layer, Blood vessels, Nerves, Organs
Loose areolar function
strength, elasticity, support
Loose adipose
adipocytes, stores triglycerides
Loose adipose location
areolar tissue, subcutaneous layer, heart, kidneys, yellow bone marrow, joints, eyeball
Loose adipose function
reduce heat loss, energy reserve, supports organs
Loose reticular
Reticular fibers and reticular cells
Loose reticular location
stroma of liver, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow, reticular lamina, blood vessels, muscles
Loose reticular function
stroma of organs, binds smooth mm, filters blood cells and microbes
Dense regular
Forms extracellular matrix, collagen fiber bundles; fibroblasts rows between
Dense regular location
tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis
Dense regular function
Strong attachment between structures. Tissue withstands pulling along fibers axis
Dense irregular
Collagen fibers random arranged with a few fibroblasts
Dense irregular location
Fasciae, Dermis, Pericardium, Periosteum, Perichondrium, Joint/membrane, Kidneys/liver/testes/lymph nodes/heart
Dense irregular function
Provides tensile strength in many directions
Dense elastic
Fibers with fibroblasts, yellowish color
Dense elastic location
Lung tissue, Arteries, Trachea/bronchial tubes/vocal cords, Penis/vertebrae ligaments
Dense elastic function
Stretches organs, Recoil
Compact bone tissue
Osteons
Spongy bone tissue
Trabeculae
Blood liquid
Plasma
Lymph liquid
lymphocytes (WBC’s)
Mucous membrane
opens to the exterior; possess goblet cells that secrete mucous
Esophagus
Serous membrane
never open to the exterior
Meninges
pleural membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord
Synovial membrane
membranes that encapsulate joints, only connective tissue membrane
Keratinocytes
Most abundant, makes up 90% of epidermis
Spikey
Filled with keratin protein – coated in hydrophobic molecules
Need protection from UV damage
Lamellar granules give waterproofing to skin
Melanocytes
Makes up 8% - only in stratum basale layer
Tentacle – like
Melanin granules release by exocytosis; taken up by keratinocytes
Protects from UV damage
All bodies have same number of melanocytes
Number of melanin granules made = determines skin colour
Melanin granules determine skin pigment, lacking melanin = albinism
Corneum
Superficial
Lucidum
Thick skin only
Granulosum
keratohyalin and lamellar granules
Spinosum
melanocytes & langerhan cells
Basale
produces keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile epithelial cells, and discs
Papillary region
Superficial portion of dermis (1/5th)
Areolar connective tissue with thin collagen and elastic fibers
Contains dermal ridges (dermal papillae) housing blood capillaries, corpuscles of touch and free nerve endings, capillary loops
Reticular region
Deeper portion of the dermis (4/5th)
Dense irregular connective tissue with thick collagen and some elastic fibers
Spaces between fibers contain adipose cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous glands and sudoriferous (sweat) glands
Sebaceous gland
Prevent hairs from drying out, prevent water loss from skin, keep skin soft, inhibit growth of some bacteria
Eccrine glands
Regulation of body temp, waste removal, stimulated during stress
Apocrine glands
Stimulated during emotional stress and sexual excitement
Ceruminous glands
Impede entrance of foreign bodies and insects into external ear canal, waterproof canal, prevent microbes from entering cells
Superficial Wound Healing
Occurs when superficial wounds affect only the epidermis
No Scar
Deep Wound Healing
Occurs when an injury extends into dermis and subcutaneous layer
Leaves behind scar
Fibrosis ex. Keloid scars (overgrowth of skin)
4 deep wound healing phases
Inflammatory → migratory phase → proliferative phase → maturation phase
Inflammatory phase
Information blood clot forms in the wound and loosely unties wound edges
Migratory phase
Clot becomes a scab, epithelial cells migrate beneath scab to bridge wound
Proliferative phase
Growth of epithelial cells beneath scab + continued growth of blood cells
Maturation phase
Scab falls off once epidermis is restored to normal thickness
Functions of skeletal tissue
Provide support
Protects the internal organs
Assists body movements – in conjunction with muscles
Mineral homeostasis – stores and releases calcium and phosphorus
Participates in blood cell production from red bone marrow – hematopoiesis
Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow
Osteoprogenitor
Bone stem cells able to differentiate into other types of cells
Undergo cell division when stimulated
Cells develop into osteoblasts (gap junctions)
Osteoblasts
Bone building cells
Synthesize/secrete collagen fibers
Forms bone extracellular matrix, become osteocytes
Deposits calcium/phosphorus from food
Initiate calcification
Osteocytes
most abundant
Mature, primary cells in bone tissue
Maintains bone tissue/metabolism and nutrient exchange in blood
Osteoclasts
Carves out bone, absorbing
Large cell; breaks down extracellular matrix
Develops from white blood cells
Remodels and bone resorption; calcium release
Ruffled border – folded plasma membrane; secretes digestive enzymes to underlying extracellular matrix that dissolves, releasing calcium to blood
Spongy Bone - Trabecular
Lightweight interior bone. Always beneath a layer of compact bone. Provides tissue support and flexibility for tendon insertion
Compact Bone - Cancellous
Strongest tissue. Provides protection and support. Resists stresses of weight and movement
Makes up: Diaphysis of long bone – Under periosteum
Epiphyses
Both ends of bone
Diaphysis
Shaft
Metaphysis
between diaphysis and epiphysis containing a growth plate on each end
Epiphyseal line
Remanent of the growth plate in adults
Articular cartilage
Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering both epiphyses where the bone forms a joint
Medullary cavity
Hollow space within diaphysis; containing bone marrow, lightens the weight of the bone. <Yellow - adults, red - infants>
Periosteum
Surrounding diaphysis
Endosteum
Thin membrane lining the medullary cavity
Muscle
organ
- Many fascicles
- Wrapped in epimysium
Muscle fascicles
tissue
- Bundle of muscle fibers
- Wrapped in perimysium
Muscle fiber
cell
- Many mesodermal cells (myoblasts)
- Wrapped in endomysium
Myofibril
contractile organelle
- Made of repeated segments of sarcomeres; in a muscle fiber/cell
Sarcomere
contractile
- Compartments where filaments are arranged inside myofibril
Endomysium
Surrounds each muscle fibre
Perimysium
Surrounds muscle fascicles
Epimysium
Surrounds entire muscle organ
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
ER that stores and releases Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm when stimulated by a neuron.
Contractility
Ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by an action potential. Pulls bone where muscle is shortened.
Extensibility
Ability of muscular tissue stretch, within limits, without being damaged
Elasticity
Ability of muscular tissue to return to its original length and shape after contraction/extension
Excitability
Ability to respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals – action potentials
Actin (thin) = troponin + tropomyosin
Has myosin binding site where the myosin head of thick filament binds during contraction, can block myosin with regulatory protein
Myosin (thick) = 2 head + 1 tail
Binds to myosin binding sites on actin during contraction. Myosin pulls actin in contraction (gets blocked by regulatory proteins).
Regulatory
help switch contraction process on and off, allows myosin to bind to actin when somatic neurons stimulate a muscle fiber
Tropomyosin
Blocks myosin binding site so myosin cannot bind to actin
Troponin
Moves tropomyosin away from myosin-binding sites on actin molecules
Titin
Connects Z disc to M line of sarcomere
Myoglobin
gives red color to mm
Skeletal muscle
voluntary
Moves bones
Multinucleated
Striated
Stimulated from somatic motor neurons
Limited capacity for regeneration due to satellite cells
Cardiac Muscle
Involuntary
Only in heart wall
1 nucleus
Striated
Intercalated discs - desmosomes and gap junctions; electrical signals pass through
Smooth muscle
Involuntary
Spindle-shaped/fusiform
1 nucleus
Not striated
Sends signals – sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system
Motor unit
1 somatic motor neuron and branches + all the muscle fibers it innervates
FEW motor units = WEAK muscle contraction - recruited first
MANY motor units = STRONG muscle contraction - get signal last
slow oxidative
in marathon runners. Least powerful muscles
fast glycolic
weight/powerlifters. Anaerobic glycolysis
fast oxidative-glycolytic
Walking and sprinting
