Exam 2 Flashcards
What are the four groups of tissues and their functions?
Nervous- internal communication (Brain spinal cord nerves)
Muscle tissue-contracts to cause movement (skeletal cardiac smooth)
Epithelial tissue- forms boundaries between different environments protect secretes absorbs and filters (skin surface and lining of G.I. tract organs)
Connective tissue supports protects binds other tissues together (bones tendons fat)
Name seven features of epithelial tissues
Cellularity – composed almost entirely of cells.
Special contacts – form continuous sheets held together by tight junctions and desmosomes.
Polarity – apical and basal surfaces.
Basement membrane connects basal surface to underlying tissues.
Supported by connective tissue – reticular and basal laminae.
Vascular but innervated – contains no blood vessels but supplied by nerve fibers.
Regenerative – rapidly replaces lost cells by cell division.
Function of epithelial simple squamous and location.
Defusion infiltration. Provided slick friction reducing the lining in lymphatic and cardiovascular systems.
Present and kidney Glomeruli, lining of heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, Sarot say.
Function and location of simple cuboidal.
Secretion and absorption.
Present in kidney tubules, ducts and secretory portions of small glands, and ovary surface.
Where are goblet cells often found? (Tissue)
Simple columnar epithelium
Function and two types of simple columnar epithelium
Absorption and secretion.
Non ciliated and ciliated.
Function and location of pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Secretion and propulsion of mucus.
Present in male sperm carrying ducts, nasal passageways, trachea, respiratory tract.
Function and location of stratified squamous epithelium.
Protection of underlining areas subjected to abrasion.
External part of skins epidermis, linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina.
What is a gland? And how are they classified?
One or more cells that makes and secretes and aqueous fluid.
Site of product release (endocrine or exocrine)
And
Relative number of cells forming a gland (unicellular or multicellular)
Explain endocrine gland
Ductless glands that produce hormones.
Secretions include amino acid, proteins, glycoprotein, and steroids.
Do not leave the body.
Explain exocrine glands
Secrete their products antibody services or into body cavities through a duct.
Goblet cell
Leave the body.
What are the three modes of secretion?
Merocrine (happy) – products are secreted by exocytosis.
Apocrine- products are secreted by large scale exocytosis
Holocrine (death)- Products are secreted by the rupture of gland cells.
What does blast, cyte , clast mean?
Blast-immature/building (mototic)
Cyte-mature (maintains health)
Clast-break down
Functions of connective tissue? (4)
Binding and support, protection, insulation and transportation
What is the common embryonic origin of connective tissue?
Mesenchyme
What are the three structural elements of connective tissue?
Ground substance – unstructured material that fills space between cells (interstitial fluid).
Fibers – collagen, elastic, or reticular
Cells – fibroblast, chondroblast, osteoblast, hematopoietic stem cells
Explain the fibers: collagen elastin and reticular
Collagen-tough, provides high tensile strength
Elastin – long thin fibers that allow stretch
Reticular – branched collagenous fibers that form delicate networks
What cells provide the following: production, nutrient storage, defense, and response to injury?
Production – fibroblasts, connective tissue proper hematobium we attic stem cells (blood)
Nutrient storage – adipose cells
Defense – white blood cells, attack foreign bodies plasma cells produce antibodies
Response to injury – mast cells
What is mesenchyme?
Embryonic connective tissue that produces all connective tissues
What is areolar or connective tissue made of, its function, and where is it located?
All three fibers, interstitial fluid, fibroblast, micro phages, mast cells and some white blood cells.
Wraps and Cushions organs.
Widely distributed throughout the body.
Adipose tissue matrix function and location?
Matrix similar to areolar closely packed a adipocytes.
Reserves food stores, insulates against heat loss supports and protects. Found under the skin, around kidneys, with an abdomen, and brass. Local fat deposit serve nutrient needs of highly active organs.
Two types of fats?
White and brown fat.
Reticular connective tissue?
Loose ground substance with reticular fibers. Reticular cells lie in fiber network. Forms a soft internal skeleton that supports other cells. Found lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen.
Dense regular?
Parallel collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers. Fibroblast. Attaches muscles to bones or other mussels and bone to bone. Found in tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses.
Dense irregular connective tissue?
Irregularly arranged collagen fibers with elastin fibers. Fibroblast. Withstand tension from different directions. In the dermis, submucosa of the digestive tract, and fibrous organ capsules
Hyaline cartilage connective tissue?
Collagen fibers.
Chondrocytes in lacunae. Supports, reinforces, cushions, and resist compression. Forms the costal cartilage. In the embryonic skeleton, end of long bones, nose, trachea, Larynx.
Elastic cartilage connective tissue?
Similar to hyaline but with more elastic fibers. Maintain shape and structure while allowing flexibility. Sports external ear and epiglottis.
Fibrocartilage cartilage connective tissue?
Similar to hyaline cartilage but less firm with the collagen fibers. Provides tensile strength and absorbs compression shock. Found in intervertabral Discs, the pubic synthesis, and discs of the knee joint
Connective tissue: bone?
Hard calcified matrix with collagen fibers. Osteocytes in lacunae.
Supports protects and provides levers for muscular action. Stores calcium is minerals and fat. Marrow inside bones is the site of hematopoiesis.
Connective tissue: blood?
Red and white cells in matrix. Contained in blood vessels. Formed elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes. Functions and transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, waste.
Name the five white blood cells and their functions.
Neutrophil – phagocytosis
Eosinophil- destroy parasitic worms
Basophil – histamine production
Monocyte – phagocytosis
Lymphocyte – antibodies/direct attack
~ T lymphocyte (thymus)-attacks infected cells
~ B lymphocyte (bone marrow) antibodies
~ NK lymphocyte (natural killer)-attacks infected cells
Nervous tissue?
Branch neurons with dendrites and axons and neuralgia (glia)
Transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors to the factors. Found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.
Muscle tissue: skeletal?
Long cylindrical multinucleate cells with striations. Initiate and controls voluntary movement. Found in skeletal muscles that attaches bones or skin.
Muscle tissue: cardiac?
Branch striated you multinucleate cells interlocking at intercalated disc. Propels blood into circulation. Found in the walls of the heart.
Muscle tissue: smooth
Sheets of spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei that have no striations. Propel substances along internal passageways. Found in the walls of hollow organs.
Epithelial membranes: cutaneous?
Cutaneous – skin
Epithelial membranes? Mucus:
Mucus – lines body cavities open to the exterior (digestive and respiratory tracts)
Serous – moist membranes found in close ventral body cavity
Explain tissue trauma
Causes inflammation characterized by: dilation of blood vessels,
Increase in blood vessel permeability,
Four cardinal signs: redness, heat, swelling, and pain
3 Steps in tissue repair?
Inflammation sets the stage.
Organization restores the blood supply.
Regeneration and fibrosis affect permanent repair.
Explain the step of tissue repair: inflammation.
Release of inflammatory chemicals,
dilation of blood vessels,
increase in blood vessel permeability,
clotting occurs
Explain step in tissue repair: organization and restored blood supply.
The blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue.
Epithelium begins to regenerate.
Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap.
Debris is phagocytized.
Explain steps and tissue repair: regeneration and fibrosis.
The scab detaches.
Fibrous tissue matures, epithelium thickens and begins to resemble adjacent tissue.
Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue.
What are primary germ layers and what arises from each one?
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
Formed early in the embryonic development.
Specialized form for primary tissues: *nerve tissue arises from ectoderm. *Muscle and connective tissues arise from mesoderm.
*Most mucosae arise from endoderm. *Epithelial tissues arise from all three germ layers.
What are the three layers of the skin?
Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
What tissue type is the epidermis composed of and what cell types are included?
Composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, langerhans cells.
What does keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, Merkel cells do?
Keratinocytes – produce Keratin
Melanocytes – produce pigment melanin
Langerhans cells- macrophages that help activate immune system
Merkel cells – touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings
Explain stratum basale.
Deepest layer, single row of youngest keratinocytes, rapid division
Explain stratum spinosum.
Weblike system and intermediate filaments attached to desmosomes. Melanin granules of langerhans cells abundant.
Explain stratum Granulosum
Last living later. Thin, drastic changes in keratinocyte. Keratohyaline and lamellated granules accumulate.
Explain stratum lucidum
Thin. transparent. Dead keratinocytes. Only in thick skin.
Explain stratum corneum
Outermost layer of keratinized cells.
What is the dermis composed of and what cell type? Name the two layers of the dermis.
Second major skin region containing strong flexible connective tissue. Cell types include fibroblasts, macrophages , occasionally mast cells and white blood cells.
Two layers are papillary and reticular.
Explain the papillary and reticular layers.
Papillary – areoleor connective tissue.
Reticular – 80% of thickness skin.
What are striae, blister, and keloid?
Striae – dermal tearing (stretch marks)
Blister – separation of epidermal/dermal layer by fluid pocket.
Keloid – abnormal proliferation of connected tissue during healing of skin wounds. Genetic
Explain the hypodermis.
Subcutaneous layer deep to the skin. Composed of adipose and areoleor connective tissue.
What are the three pigments that contribute to skin color?
Melanin – yellow to reddish brown to black pigment responsible for dark colors (moles)
Carotene – yellow to orange
Hemoglobin – reddish pigment responsible for pinkish hue of skin (resulting from blood flow)
Explain the four sweat glands.
Eccrine – watery sweat for heat regulation
Apocrine-fatty/ protein rich sweat for sexual odors
Ceruminous- modified apocrine in external ear canal
Mammory – glands that secrete milk
Explain the eccrine sweat gland in detail.
PH 4 to 6
Composition affected by diet and heredity
Regulated by sympathetic ANS (nervous, scared, exercising, hot)
Prevent overheating
500 mL per day during resting conditions
Almost all water
Explain the Sebaceous gland in detail.
Widely distributed, most developed from here follicles, active at puberty, sebum.
What is sebum?
Oily Holocrine secretion, bactericidal, softens hair and skin, if clogged result in acne.
What is hair made up of?
Hard keratin. Core called the Medulla, a cortex, and outermost cuticle
What are hair functions?
Help maintain warmth, alert body to presence of insects on skin, guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, sunlight
What are two types of hair?
Vellus – pale, fine body hair found in children and the adult female.
Terminal – course, long hair of eyebrow, scalp, axillary, and pubic region
Explain alopecia and true (frank) baldness.
Alopecia- hair thinning in both sexes, in patches
Baldness-genetically determined and sex influenced.
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
Protection – chemical, physical and mechanical barrier.
Body temperature regulation – regulated bloodflow.
Cutaneous sensation – Exorscepters sense temperature touch and pain.
Metabolism functions – synthesizes vitamin D.
Blood reservoir – skin blood vessel store 5% body’s blood volume.
Excretion – limited amounts of nitrogenous waste and so are eliminated from the body in sweat.
What are the three major types of skin cancer?
Basal cell carcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma. Melanoma.
Explain basal cell carcinoma.
Most common, least malignant, slow-growing, stratum basale cells proliferate and invade the dermis and hypodermis.
Explain squamous cell carcinoma
Most common on scalp, ears, and lower lip.
Grows rapidly and metastasizes if not removed.
Arises from keratinocytes of Stratum Spinosum.
Explain melanoma.
Cancer of melanocytes is the most dangerous type of cancer. Highly metastatic. Resistant to chemo.
What are the ABC’s of melanoma?
A – asymmetry (two sides of pigmented areas do not match)
B- border is irregular and exhibits indentations
C-Color is black, brown, tan and sometimes red or blue
D-diameter is larger than 6 mm
E-elevation – spot is elevated above skin surfaces
What is the damage and symptoms of 1st° burn?
Only the epidermis is damaged. Symptoms include localized redness, swelling, and pain.
What is the damage and symptoms of second-degree burns?
Epidermis and upper regions of dermis are damaged. Symptoms mimic first-degree burns, but blisters appear
What is the damage and symptoms of third-degree burns?
Entire thickness skin is damage. Burned area appears gray white, cherry red, or black. There is no initial edema or pain (since nerve endings are destroyed.)
What is and explain the rule of nines.
Estimate the severity of Burns. Burns are considered crucial if:
25% of the body has 2nd° burns. OR 10% of the body has third-degree burns. OR There are third-degree burns on face, hands, or feet.
What are the percentages of all body parts for the rule of nines?
Each arm IN TOTAL represents 9%, each leg represents 18%, had represents 9%, trunk represents 36%.
(So just the anterior arm would be 4.5%, anterior leg would be 9%, anterior trunk 18%.)
What is lanugo, milia and vernix caseosa infants?
Lanugo- downy coat of delicate hairs covering the fetus
Milia- accumulations of sebaceous glands on fore head and nose
Vernix caseosa- White, waxy substance produced by sebaceous gland that protects the skin of the fetus in the amnion.
What are developmental aspects of integumentary system from adolescent to adult?
Skin and hair become oily and actually appears.
Skin shows environmental effects around age 30
Scaling and dermatitis become more common.
What are the development aspects of the integument at what age?
Epidermal replacement slows skin becomes thinner, dry and itchy.Fat layer diminishes leading to intolerance of cold and wrinkles.
Decrease numbers of melanocytes and langerhans cells increase the risk of skin cancer
name the long bones.
Humerus ulna radius femur tib/fib
Name the short bones.
Carpals tarsals patella
What are the flat bones?
Sternum and most of skull bones (occipital, frontal, parietal, Temporal)
What are the irregular bones?
Vertebrae and hipbones
Explain the structure of a long bone.
Diaphysis (shaft): has compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity. (Yellow marrow=fat in adults)
Epiphysis (proximal and distal): expanded ends, spongy bone interior, epiphyseal line, articular cartilage on joint surface
Explaining the periosteum membrane of the bone.
Outer fibrous layer.
Inner osteogenic layer cells: Osteogenic cells (stem cells that can make other 2 cells-->), osteoblast (bone forming cell),osteoclast(bone destroying).
Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina.
Secured to underlying bone by sharpeys fibers.
Explain endosteum.
Delicate membrane on internal bone surface.
Also contains osteoblast and osteoclast.
What is Diploe?
Spongy bone in flat bones
What kind of Marrow does spongy bone always have?
Red bone marrow
What is hematopoietic tissue?
Red marrow
Where is hematopoietic tissue found in adults and infants?
Adults: trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus, Diploe of flat bones.
Infants: medullary cavity’s and all spaces in spongy bone
Where is yellow marrow found? And what is it?
Medullary cavity of long bones in adult. Primarily fat.
What are the four cells of bones?
Osteogenic cells: stem cells In periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblast.
Osteoblast: bone forming cells
Osteocytes: mature bone cells embedded in the tissue
Osteoclast: cells that breakdown bone matrix
What is the structure of the osteon (ha version system):
Lamellae: weight-bearing, column like matrix tubes, collagen fibers running different directions.
Haversian canal: contains blood vessels and nerves
Volkmanns canal: at right angles to haversian canal. Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and Haversian canal.
Lacunae: small cavities that contain osteocytes.
Canaliculi: hair like canals that connect lacunae to each other and the haversion canal and Allow nutrient and waste distribution.
What is hydroxyapatites?
65% of bone mass. Added to osteoid. Mainly calcium phosphate crystals. Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression.
What is an osteoid?
Organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblast.
What are the stages of bone development?
Bone formation: begin second month development.
Postnatal bone growth until early adulthood.
Bone remodeling and repair lifelong.
What are the two types of bone ossification? Explain.
Intramembranous ossification: membrane bone develops from fibrous connective tissue membrane. Forms flat bones such as clavicles for cranial bones.
Endochondral ossification: Cartilage bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage. Forms most of the rest of the skeleton.
What is interstitial and appositional growth?
Interstitial: increased link of long bones.
Appositional: increased thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts/osteoplast on bone surface.
What are the four functional zones of the epiphyseal plate?
Proliferation zone (mitosis)
Hypertrophic zone (enlarging)
Calcification zone (cell death)
Ossification zone (new growth)
What hormones regulate bone growth?
Growth hormone: stimulates epiphyseal plate
Thyroid hormone: modulates activity of growth hormone
Testosterone and estrogen (at puberty): promote adolescent growth spurt
End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure.
What nutrients are required for bone deposit where bone is injured or added strength is needed?
Protein, vitamins C, D, A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese
What controls continual remodeling of bone?
Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood. Mechanical and gravitational forces.
Calcium is necessary for?
Transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, blood coagulation, secretion by glands and nerve cells, cell division.
What is the negative feedback and hormonal control of blood calcium?
Parathyroid releases PCH and stimulate osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release ca2+.
What is Wolffs law?
A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it.
What are the four classifications of bone fractures?
1)Position of bone ends after fracture: nondisplaced – ends retain normal position.
Displaced – and out of normal alignment.
2) completeness of the break:
Complete – broken all the way through. Incomplete – not broken all the way through.
3) orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone:
linear – parallel to the long axis of the bone.
Transverse – perpendicular to the long axis of the bone.
4)Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin:
compound – bone and penetrate. Simple – do not penetrate.
What are the six common types of fractures?
Comminuted: bone fragments into three more pieces, common in elderly. Spiral – ragged break when bone is excessively twisted; common sports injury.
Depressed – broken bone portion pressed inward, typically skull fracture.
Compression – phone is crushed, common in porous bone.(elderly)
Epiphyseal- epiphysis separates from diaphysis along epiphyseal line; occurs where cartilage cells are dying.
Greenstick – incomplete fracture were one side of the bone breaks and the other side bends, common in children.
What are the four stages of healing in bone fracture?
Hematoma forms
fibrocartilaginous callus
Bony callus forms
Bone remodeling occurs
