Exam 2 Flashcards
Pineal Gland
Melatonin
Hypothalamus
Trophic Hormones
PPG
Prolactin, GH, ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxine, Calcitonin
Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid Hormone
Heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Liver
Angiotensin, Insulin growth factors
Stomach/SI
gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin
Pancreas
insulin, glucagon, somatostatin
Adrenal Cortex
Aldosterone (glomerulata), cortisol (fasciculata), androgens (androgens)
Adrenal Medulla
epinephrine, norepinephrine
Skin
vitD
Testes
Androgens, inhibin
Ovaries
estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin
Adipose Tissue
leptin, adiponectin, resistin
Peptide Hormones
made in advance, exocytosis, short lived, receptors, modification of existing proteins (insulin, parathyroid)
Steroid
synthesized on demand, simple diffusion, bound to carrier proteins, long life, activation of genes (estrogens, androgens, cortisol)
Catecholamines (Tyrosine)
made in advance, exocytosis, short lived, similar to protein hormones
Thyroid Hormones
made in advance, transport protein, long life, nucleus target, similar to lipid hormones
HPA axis
Hypothalamus - CRH
Anterior PG - ACTH
Adrenal Cortex - Cortisol
HPT axis
Hypothalamus - TRH
Anterior PG - TSH
Thyroid - T3/T4
HPG axis
Hypothalamus - GnRH
Anterior PG - FSH/LH
Thyroid - Testosterone, Estradiol, Progesterone
Preprohormone
large, inactive precursor
Prohormone
processed to smaller form but still inactive
Peptide Hormone Synthesis
mRHA binds preprohormone
ER enzymes create prohormones
Pass through the Golgi
Secretory vesicles release and exocytosis into blood stream
Steroid Hormone Transport
Bound to protein carriers
Receptors intracellularly
Bind DNA and activate genes
New mRNA/proteins
Tryptophan Deriv
Melatonin
Tyrosine Deriv - Catecholamines
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine (like peptides)
Tyrosine Deriv - Thyroid
T4/T3
Hypothalamic Hormones
Dopamine, TRH, CRH, GHRH, GnRH
Secondary Hormones
Prolactin, TSH, ACTH, GH, FSH, LH
Tertiary Hormones
T3/T4, Cortisol, Androgens, Estrogens
Prolactin
milk production
Growth Hormone
metabolism, liver
Synergism
combined effect of hormones is greater than additive (glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol)
Which of the following hormones does NOT display tropic effects?
FSH
MSH
GH
ACTH
MSH
Select which one(s) are/is an example(s) of a peptide hormone.
Dopamine
Insulin
ANP
Androgens
Insulin, ANP (dopamine is catecholamine, androgen is cholesterol)
Identify the correct pathway
CRH -> ACTH -> Cortisol
TRH -> PRL -> T3
GHRH -> GH -> PRL
GnRH -> LH -> Aldosterone
CRH -> ACTH -> Cortisol
Select all statements that are true
Calcium has a lower concentration in the cell than outside the cell
Chloride has a lower concentration in the cell than outside the cell
Sodium has a higher concentration inside the cell than outside the cell
Potassium has a lower concentration outside the cell than inside the cell
Calcium has a lower concentration in the cell than outside the cell
Chloride has a lower concentration in the cell than outside the cell
Potassium has a lower concentration outside the cell than inside the cell
Where does an action potential originate from?
The dendrite
The soma
The axon hillock
The axon terminal
The axon hillock
The pancreas secreting insulin and glucagon occurs via which kind of feedback loop?
First order feedback loop
Second order feedback loop
Third order feedback loop
Direct feedback loop
Direct feedback loop
What is the MAIN reason as to why cells have a negative membrane potential?
Cl- ions inside the cell.
The lack of Na+ inside the cell.
The abundance of negatively charged proteins in the cell.
The high level of potassium inside the cell.
The abundance of negatively charged proteins in the cell.
What is in high abundance at the nodes of ranvier? (Select all that apply).
Voltage-gated sodium channels
Voltage-gated potassium channels
Ligand-gated sodium channels
Sodium Potassium pumps
Metabotropic receptors
Voltage-gated sodium channels
Voltage-gated potassium channels
Sodium Potassium pumps
True or False: The order of hormone feedback loops depends on how many hormones are involved.
False → it depends on how many glands/organs are involved
Which of the following is true about the posterior pituitary gland (select all that apply)
Releases ADH and oxytocin
Is also known as the adenohypophysis
Is also known as the neurohypophysis
Is an extension of the hypothalamus
None of the above are true
Releases ADH and oxytocin
Is also known as the neurohypophysis
Is an extension of the hypothalamus
Which of the anterior pituitary hormones does not act on an endocrine gland?
Prolactin
Thyrotropin
Adrenocorticotropin
Growth hormone
Follicle stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Prolactin
Which hormones are amine derivatives? (select all that apply)
Dopamine
Oxytocin
Norepinephrine
Growth hormone
Insulin
Dopamine, Norepinephrine
Which answer best describes the synthesis of T3
Four iodine ions are added to thyroglobulin by thyroid peroxidase in the thyroid
Three iodine ions are added to TSH in the thymus
F cells combine two T4 molecules
Thyroid peroxidase adds three iodine ions to thyroglobulin in the thyroid
Amino acids are assembled in the colloid
Thyroid peroxidase adds three iodine ions to thyroglobulin in the thyroid
What neurotransmitters regulate release of Prolactin? (select all that apply)
PRH
PIH
LH
Dopamine
Serotonin
PRH, PIH, Dopamine
What anatomical structures will affect sex hormones? (select all that apply)
Posterior pituitary
Testes
Placenta
Corpus Luteum
Adrenal medulla
Anterior pituitary
Testes
Placenta
Corpus Luteum
Anterior pituitary
What effect does vasopressin have on the body?
Increase blood pressure and increase salt concentration
Increase blood pressure and decrease salt concentration
Decrease blood pressure and decrease salt concentration
Decrease blood pressure and increased salt concentration
Increase blood pressure and increase salt concentration
Which of the following occurs during a parasympathetic nervous system response? (select all that apply).
Pupils constrict.
Heart rate increases.
Dilation of bronchioles.
Increased motility of small and large intestines.
Empty the colon and bladder.
Pupils constrict.
Increased motility of small and large intestines.
Empty the colon and bladder.
Which of the following hormone releasing systems is tonic (constantly releasing hormones)?
CRH → ACTH → corticosteroids.
TRH → TSH → T3 & T4.
PRH → prolactin.
GnRH → FSH & LH → estrogen/progesterone or testosterone.
TRH → TSH → T3 & T4.
Select all that apply: what classifies hormones?
Has a signaling function
Transported through the circulatory system
Bind to a specific receptor
Exert effects and extremely low concentrations
Must be hydrophobic
Has a signaling function
Transported through the circulatory system
Bind to a specific receptor
Exert effects and extremely low concentrations
Cushing’s disease is a result of too much ACTH resulting in hypersecretion of cortisol. This is an example of which kind of hypersecretion.
Direct
Primary
Secondary
tertiary
Secondary
What is the primary ion responsible for the depolarization phase of an action potential?
A) Potassium (K⁺)
B) Sodium (Na⁺)
C) Chloride (Cl⁻)
D) Calcium (Ca²⁺)
B) Sodium (Na⁺)
Which type of ion channel is primarily responsible for initiating an action potential?
A) Ligand-gated sodium channels
B) Voltage-gated sodium channels
C) Voltage-gated potassium channels
D) Leak potassium channels
B) Voltage-gated sodium channels
What causes voltage-gated sodium channels to open?
A) A neurotransmitter binding to the receptor
B) A decrease in extracellular sodium levels
C) A membrane depolarization at or beyond the threshold
D) An increase in intracellular potassium
C) A membrane depolarization at or beyond the threshold
Which event marks the repolarization of an action potential during the falling phase?
A) Opening of voltage-gated sodium channels
B) Inactivation of voltage-gated potassium channels
C) Opening of voltage-gated potassium channels
D) Closing of ligand-gated sodium channels
C) Opening of voltage-gated potassium channels
During which phase is a neuron completely unable to fire another action potential, no matter the stimulus strength?
A) Resting potential
B) Relative refractory period
C) Absolute refractory period
D) Threshold potential
C) Absolute refractory period
What happens to voltage-gated sodium channels during the absolute refractory period?
A) They remain open indefinitely
B) They are inactivated and cannot reopen immediately
C) They allow potassium to pass instead of sodium
D) They become more sensitive to small stimuli
B) They are inactivated and cannot reopen immediately
What is the primary reason an action potential cannot travel backward?
A) The neuron has run out of neurotransmitters
B) The myelin sheath prevents backward conduction
C) The absolute refractory period prevents reactivation
D) Potassium channels block sodium influx
C) The absolute refractory period prevents reactivation
What differentiates the relative refractory period from the absolute refractory period?
A) The neuron can fire another action potential with a stronger stimulus
B) Voltage-gated sodium channels are still inactivated
C) Potassium channels remain closed
D) The neuron is hyperpolarized and cannot depolarize again
A) The neuron can fire another action potential with a stronger stimulus
Which ion is primarily responsible for hyperpolarization at the end of an action potential?
A) Sodium (Na⁺)
B) Chloride (Cl⁻)
C) Potassium (K⁺)
D) Calcium (Ca²⁺)
C) Potassium (K⁺)
What role does myelin play in action potential conduction?
A) Increases the speed of conduction by allowing saltatory conduction
B) Blocks voltage-gated channels from functioning
C) Prevents sodium from leaving the neuron
D) Inhibits the refractory period
A) Increases the speed of conduction by allowing saltatory conduction
Schwann Cells
PNS, wrap around axon and form insulating myelin sheaths
Oligodendrocytes
CNS, wrap around axon and form insulating myelin sheaths
Satellite Cells
PNS, nonmyelinating Schwann cells
Astrocytes
CNS, several roles
Microglia
CNS, immune cells
Ependymal Cells
CNS, neural stem cells, barriers between compartments
Graded Potentials
variable strength, short distance communication
Action Potentials
very brief, large depolarizations, rapid signaling over long distance
